INSIGHT INTO CASTELL’S DEFINITION ON INFORMATION SOCIETY
Do we live in an era of change or in a changing era? As society changes, the old name becomes non-operational. Agricultural society gave way to industrial society, which was followed by Post Industrial society, a name given by Daniel Bell of Harvard University and Alain Touraine of France almost at the same time (incidentally both of them are sociologists.). Agriculture is the main mode of production, employing the vast majority of the people in an agricultural society. In an industrial society, industrial activities dominate the economy. In a Post Industrial society, the majority of the population is employed neither in agriculture nor in the industrial sector but instead are pushers of papers. The service sector, or the tertiary sector, becomes predominant in this stage. This is a phase that Alvin Toffler called ‘the third wave”.
In recent years, a new name has been invented for the Post- Industrial society: is it Information Society or Knowledge Society. In today’s world there seems to be an oversupply of information. Most of the information we have is not useful. The other side of information society is where we have a lot information on what is going on , but not enough on what can be done or ought to be done, and much less on how to do it. We lack a moral compass to navigate through the tickets of information. In this society one has the right to information. There is abundance of creation of information. These societies value information and have created infrastructures for the collection, processing and dissemination of information. For example: I can find out by a flick of my computer mouse, the number of road accidents in America.
In this past decade, the expression “information society” has without a doubt been confirmed as the hegemonic term, not because it necessarily expresses a theoretical clarity, but rather due to its “baptism” by the official policies of the more developed countries and the “crowning” that meant having a World Summit dedicated in its honor.
The term’s antecedents, however, date back from previous decades. In 1973, United States sociologist Daniel Bell introduced the notion “information society” in his book The Coming of Post-Industrial Society [1], where he formulates that the main axis of this society will be theoretical knowledge and warns that knowledge-based services will be transformed into the central structure of the new economy and of an information-led society, where ideologies will end up being superfluous.
This expression reappears strongly in the 90s, within the context of the development of the World Wide Web and ICTs. As of 1995, it was included in the agenda of the G7 meetings (followed by G8, which joins heads of State and governments from the most powerful nations on the planet). It has been addressed in forums of the European Community and the OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (the thirty most developed countries in the World), and has been adopted by the United States government, as well as various UN agencies and the World Bank Group. All with great repercussions in the communication media. As of 1998, the term was first selected by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and then by the UN, as the name for the World Summit to be held in 2003 and 2005.
Within this context, the concept “information society” as a political and ideological construct has developed under the direction of neo-liberal globalization, whose main goal has been to accelerate the establishment of an open and “self-regulated” world market. This policy has counted on the close collaboration of multilateral organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank, in order for the weak countries to abandon national regulations or protectionist measures that “would discourage” the inversion; all with the known result of a scandalous widening of the gaps between the rich and the poor in the World.
Regardless of this reality and the key role that communication technologies have played in the acceleration of economic globalization, information society’s public image is more associated with the “friendlier” aspects of globalization, such as the World Wide Web, mobile and international phoning, TV via satellite, etc. Thus, the information society has assumed the role of the “good will ambassador” for globalization, whose “benefits” could be within the reach of all, if only the “digital divide” could be bridged.
Manuel Castells is a Professor of Sociology and Planning and Chair of the Center for Western European Studies at the University of California. He on the other hand has clearly define the information society. This definition is what I would like to discuss, taking into consideration, the key elements in the definition.
A term put forward by Castells (1993 1-2) to describe a society built on technologies of information storage, retrieval, and transmission, time-space compression, Post-Fordism, flexible accumulation, and the advance of finance capital, which is characterized by networking, globalization, and the flexibility, individuality, and instability of work.
1. Technology
Technology is the process by which humans modify nature to meet their needs and wants. Most people, however, think of technology in terms of its artifacts: computers and soft ware, air craft, pesticides , water treatment plants, birth-control pills and micro wave ovens to name a few. But technology is more than these tangible products. Technology in information communication refers to the rapid development of information. Think of ICT as the productive factor for the society that depends on information. Technology is the back bone of an information society. All the key points in Castell’s definition depends o technology. It can be seen as objects- tools, machines, instruments, weapons, and appliances-the physical devices of technical performance. As a knowledge: the know how behind technological innovations. As a process – begins with a need and ends with a solution. As socio- technical systems: the manufacture and use of objects involving people and other objects in combination. Change in the material environment is the explicit purpose of technology and not, as is the case with science. As time progress, so does technology. Technology has made things much simple for humans, and also added new ways for us to communicate.
2. Information storage.
What is information and how can it be stored? Information refers to data that has been assigned a meaning. Beer (1985 p. 28) describes information as “that which changes us”- data becomes information when it can be acted upon. In so far as information can be considered in the abstract, it is always linked to specific situation and has only limited validity (Vander Spek & Spijkervet, 1997). In an information society, information becomes a commodity which must be created. After creation, the commodity must be kept until it is needed. Therefore, information storage refers to the way information is stored, retrieved and displayed. People who store information can make money. Example: Library, Archives, Wikipedia, Google, Yahoo.
3. Retrieval
The process of getting something back. The process of getting back information stored on a computer. In an information society, information retrieval is key. That is, after creating and storing, it is able to get back or retrieve the information when needed.
4. Transmission
The act or process of passing something from one place, person, thing to another. It talks about distribution. Technology has made transmission so easy. In such a society, distribution of information is a means in itself. Distribution is a money making means or machine in an information society.
5. Time space compression
Time has been a big problem in the social and economic/ cultural environment. With the evolvement of technology it has compressed time, space and distant. Spatial meanings are changed by electronic communications. In Castells definition, he proposes that technology with its instantaneous processing of financial transactions and the speeding up of actions takes us into an era of timeless time. Time- space compression is evident when you look at human communication in the ancient days as compared to recent days.
6. Post Fordism
It is the name given to the dominant system of economic production, consumption and associated socio-economic phenomena, in most industrialized countries since the late 20th century. Definitions of the nature and scope of post fordism vary considerably and a matter of debate among shoulders. Post fordism is characterized by the following attributes
• New information technologies
• Small batch production
• Economies of scope
• Specialized products and jobs
• Emphasis on types of consumers in contrast to previous emphasis on social class
• The rise of the service and the white collar worker
• Feminization of the work force.
Post Fordism can be applied in a wider context to describe a whole system of modern social processes because Post Fordism describes the world as it is today. It brought new ways of looking at consumption and production.
7. Flexible Accumulation / Finance Capital
Those who create information and for a matter of fact in the information society the creators easily accumulates capital. For example the creators of Microsoft still accumulate wealth. This is what happens in an information society. There is a widespread trend toward capital mobility. The process is linked to the emergence of global cities increasingly more, connected to each other then the immediate regional environment (Sassen 1991) Lamberton identifies one important strand of the process, noting that information creates economies of scale in a way that allows the rich to get richer. According to him, it pays business planning large scale operations to buy better information than smaller firms (lamberton 2002 p. 337)
8. Net working
It is key in an information society. The networking that Castells identifies occurs at a number of levels and for a range of different purposes. What they appear to have in common is that they provide a structure that is both temporary an flexible enabling organisations to work together and co- operate when it benefits them but not constraining them after their usefulness has passed. Networking was integral to the development of technology. However, the development of productive and powerful global networks does have implication for individuals, communities and countries throughout the world. There are countries that are at the core of these network, notably in north America, Europe and far east, while others in Asia and south and central America fulfill supportive roles based on their cheaper labour costs. For those who are included within the network society, work patterns are changing. As technology has made it possible for large corporations to shift and distribute their production around the world.
9. Globalization.
Describes an ongoing process by which regional economies, societies and cultures have become integrated through a globe – spanning network of communication and exchange. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to economic globalization: integration of national economies in to the international economy through trade, foreign direct investments, capital flows, migration and the spread of technology. However, globalization is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic, technological, socio cultural, political, and biological factors.
CRITIQUES OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY.
As with any zeitgeist there is a criticism. Two of the most notable critique has been Frank Webster’s Survey of theories of the Information Society (Webster 2002) and Christopher May’s (2000). Aside this critique there is a disadvantage of an information society that cannot be overlooked. It has brought global and local digital divide. Globally, there has been a divide. Some countries are at the core of networking whiles other lags behind. Also, whiles some countries have experienced information society, some countries have not started experiencing it. Locally, there has been a digital divide between the citizens of a country. This divide exists locally due to several factors such as age, urban –rural settings, gender, education and so on.
Age
According to experts, age is a problem in the information society. At the initial stages of information society, some age classes were excluded and this has been the problem. However, the digital gap is now narrowing but in our local market it is a a big problem.
Urban – rural setting
The urban setting (cities, towns) are exposed greatly to ICT as compared to the rural setting(villages).NB: you cannot have an information society without ICT.
Gender (male and female) it has been researched that women are late adapters to technology and as such are affected by the digital divide. But an information society does not seek to bring disparity but equality. However, technology is male dominated.
Education
Literacy and illiteracy. Those who are literate are able to get access to ICT. Even with the literate there are ICT illiterate and all this is due to the rapid development of ICT.
Monday, July 12, 2010
PSYCHOLOGY
WHAT IS PERCEPTION?
A communicator like the psychologist has the cause to believe and understand people reasonably well. The communicator or journalist communicate with people and as such must understand human behaviour. This raises the question of ‘what is psychology? According to Ellen Pastorino and Susann Doyle-Portillo in their book ‘WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY’ defines psychology “as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. From the definition above some key elements such as behaviour and mental processes is key. These elements relates to humans or society, in other words people. To ensure a better understanding one has to take a look at social psychology. Social psychology is the discipline that studies how we think about, influence and relate to other people. (James S. Nairne, PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition). In social psychology there are several concepts which include attitude, discrimination, perception, prejudice, stereotypes. For the purpose of this assignment, perception as a concept of social psychology would be discussed.
The word perception comes from the Latin words perceptio, percipio and means “receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind senses. Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. In philosophy, psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. Basically, perception according to Oxford Learners Dictionary is ‘an idea, a belief or an image you have as a result of how you see or understand something’. Also in PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition, James S. Nairne defines perception as ‘the collection of processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of those sensations’. Forming perceptions is to make sense of the world, knowing where one thing ends and another begins.
The study of perception gives rise to the Gestalt school of psychology which observes that when we perceive something, properties emerge from a whole configuration that is not found in any particular component. The philosophy of perception concerns how mental processes and symbols depend on the world internal and external to the perceiver. Our perception of the external world begins with the senses, which lead us to generate empirical concepts representing the work around us, within a mental framework relating new concepts the world so its study may be important for better understanding communication, self, ID, Ego even reality
The processes of perception routinely alter what humans see. When people view something with a preconceived concept about it, they tend to take those concepts and see them whether or not they are there. When objects are viewed without understanding, the mind will try to reach for something that already recognizes, in order to process what it is viewing. That which most closely relates and the unfamiliar from our past experiences, makes up what we see when we look at things that we do not comprehend.
Perception is a requisite property of animate action without perception action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless. But the question is Do our perceptions allow us to experience the world as it really is?’’ Can we ever know another point of view in the way we know our own? We can categorize perception as internal or external. Internal perception tells us what’s going on in our bodies. External or sensory perception tells about the world outside our bodies. However, the philosophy of perception is mainly concerned with external perception and the word is used in that sense everywhere.
Perceptions vary from person to person. Situations one found him or herself can create a perception. Different people perceive different things about the same situation but more than that, we assign different meanings to what we perceive and the meanings might change it a certain person. Our perception of ourselves in relation to the rest of the world plays an important role in our choices, behaviours and beliefs. We do not simply see ‘what’s ‘out there’ in the physical world, our perceptions are also influenced by our expectations of what will find. When you encounter to person for the first time, your initial impressions are influenced by physical factors- attractiveness, facial expression, skin color, and clothing and by our meaningful interpretations of those physical attributes. Another influence on our perceptions of other people can be explained by the theory of correspondent inferences. This occurs when we infer that the actions and behaviours of others correspond to other intentions and personalities.
Cultural groups can reflect such obvious characteristics as shared ethnicity, race or socioeconomic class but may also be based on political, religious, professional or other factors. The perception of beauty has subjective components that are culturally dependent. If you see a sloppily dressed, unshaven man weaving down the street you’re likely to form a negative first impression partly because past experiences have taught you to avoid people who fit this description. Not all people rely on physical appearance to the same extent (Livingstone, 2001) and cultural background is important too-some cultures do not rely on attractiveness as much as others (Wheeler & King 1997). If the approaching person appears attractive and well kept at least you know he or she follows some of the accepted standards and norms of culture.
Research shows that in many situations person’s pe4rceptions can be accurate but sometimes it can be inaccurate (perceptual errors). Perceptual errors caused by misapplied expectations can lead us to think we have seen or heard things those we simply and did not. There is ample evidence that expectations can strongly influence our perception of events as well as our memory for what we have seen, as in eyewitness testimony (Allport & Postman, 1947/1965; Loftus & Palmer, 1974).
In conclusion, as a communicator my aim is to deepen the social and psychological assumptions that informs and shape the public opinions and tend to get a better combination between the news, the public and the media, as such my understanding about perception and its formation would enable me achieve this aim. Knowing about perception would enable me not to be quick to form images about the individual and not be bias in my reportage. I also have the responsibility as a communicator to interpret the meaning of my reports, findings, research and thereby give a causal explanation of the way I get my findings and the effects which it produces. The meaning should be thought of somehow objectively true. Understanding perception would enhance my choice of words as a communicator because according to Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe “No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they misunderstood others”. Hence, it would guide me to be writing denotatively other than connotatively. Also, knowing that perception can lead to discrimination, I would ensure I do not fall by discriminating in my reportage and as realize that my interactions with people function to serve a goal or fulfill a need.
A communicator like the psychologist has the cause to believe and understand people reasonably well. The communicator or journalist communicate with people and as such must understand human behaviour. This raises the question of ‘what is psychology? According to Ellen Pastorino and Susann Doyle-Portillo in their book ‘WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY’ defines psychology “as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. From the definition above some key elements such as behaviour and mental processes is key. These elements relates to humans or society, in other words people. To ensure a better understanding one has to take a look at social psychology. Social psychology is the discipline that studies how we think about, influence and relate to other people. (James S. Nairne, PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition). In social psychology there are several concepts which include attitude, discrimination, perception, prejudice, stereotypes. For the purpose of this assignment, perception as a concept of social psychology would be discussed.
The word perception comes from the Latin words perceptio, percipio and means “receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind senses. Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. In philosophy, psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. Basically, perception according to Oxford Learners Dictionary is ‘an idea, a belief or an image you have as a result of how you see or understand something’. Also in PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition, James S. Nairne defines perception as ‘the collection of processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of those sensations’. Forming perceptions is to make sense of the world, knowing where one thing ends and another begins.
The study of perception gives rise to the Gestalt school of psychology which observes that when we perceive something, properties emerge from a whole configuration that is not found in any particular component. The philosophy of perception concerns how mental processes and symbols depend on the world internal and external to the perceiver. Our perception of the external world begins with the senses, which lead us to generate empirical concepts representing the work around us, within a mental framework relating new concepts the world so its study may be important for better understanding communication, self, ID, Ego even reality
The processes of perception routinely alter what humans see. When people view something with a preconceived concept about it, they tend to take those concepts and see them whether or not they are there. When objects are viewed without understanding, the mind will try to reach for something that already recognizes, in order to process what it is viewing. That which most closely relates and the unfamiliar from our past experiences, makes up what we see when we look at things that we do not comprehend.
Perception is a requisite property of animate action without perception action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless. But the question is Do our perceptions allow us to experience the world as it really is?’’ Can we ever know another point of view in the way we know our own? We can categorize perception as internal or external. Internal perception tells us what’s going on in our bodies. External or sensory perception tells about the world outside our bodies. However, the philosophy of perception is mainly concerned with external perception and the word is used in that sense everywhere.
Perceptions vary from person to person. Situations one found him or herself can create a perception. Different people perceive different things about the same situation but more than that, we assign different meanings to what we perceive and the meanings might change it a certain person. Our perception of ourselves in relation to the rest of the world plays an important role in our choices, behaviours and beliefs. We do not simply see ‘what’s ‘out there’ in the physical world, our perceptions are also influenced by our expectations of what will find. When you encounter to person for the first time, your initial impressions are influenced by physical factors- attractiveness, facial expression, skin color, and clothing and by our meaningful interpretations of those physical attributes. Another influence on our perceptions of other people can be explained by the theory of correspondent inferences. This occurs when we infer that the actions and behaviours of others correspond to other intentions and personalities.
Cultural groups can reflect such obvious characteristics as shared ethnicity, race or socioeconomic class but may also be based on political, religious, professional or other factors. The perception of beauty has subjective components that are culturally dependent. If you see a sloppily dressed, unshaven man weaving down the street you’re likely to form a negative first impression partly because past experiences have taught you to avoid people who fit this description. Not all people rely on physical appearance to the same extent (Livingstone, 2001) and cultural background is important too-some cultures do not rely on attractiveness as much as others (Wheeler & King 1997). If the approaching person appears attractive and well kept at least you know he or she follows some of the accepted standards and norms of culture.
Research shows that in many situations person’s pe4rceptions can be accurate but sometimes it can be inaccurate (perceptual errors). Perceptual errors caused by misapplied expectations can lead us to think we have seen or heard things those we simply and did not. There is ample evidence that expectations can strongly influence our perception of events as well as our memory for what we have seen, as in eyewitness testimony (Allport & Postman, 1947/1965; Loftus & Palmer, 1974).
In conclusion, as a communicator my aim is to deepen the social and psychological assumptions that informs and shape the public opinions and tend to get a better combination between the news, the public and the media, as such my understanding about perception and its formation would enable me achieve this aim. Knowing about perception would enable me not to be quick to form images about the individual and not be bias in my reportage. I also have the responsibility as a communicator to interpret the meaning of my reports, findings, research and thereby give a causal explanation of the way I get my findings and the effects which it produces. The meaning should be thought of somehow objectively true. Understanding perception would enhance my choice of words as a communicator because according to Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe “No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they misunderstood others”. Hence, it would guide me to be writing denotatively other than connotatively. Also, knowing that perception can lead to discrimination, I would ensure I do not fall by discriminating in my reportage and as realize that my interactions with people function to serve a goal or fulfill a need.
PRESS LAW
LAW TERMS
1. CONSIDERATION
Paying something (valuable in the eyes of the receiver, not necessarily all) for an offer. It usually comes in contract (offer and acceptance). An inducement for something promised.
2. INDEMNITY
It is undertaken not to hold someone responsible for an act or a deed. Some sought of guarantee given to someone not to be responsible for the consequences of any actions (indemnify another). Example: when Emma gives Yaw information about a situation. Emma can tell Yaw to indemnify him. That is, not to hold him (Emma) responsible for any consequences that may result form that piece of information.
3. ACQUITAL
When you are left free in a court of law especially in criminal matters (discharge from court)
4. ACCUSATORIAL PROCEEDINGS
There are two types of handling cases (proceedings)
• Accusatorial (English system)
It is a procedure in the court of law in which it is the duty of a party which is allergen (in criminal cases) to produce that evidence. He who alleges must prove. Example: if you say I have stolen, you have to prove I have stolen.
• Inquisitorial (French system)
The procedure in which the accused would have to prove that he or she is not guilt. Example: if you say I have stolen, I have to prove I have or have not stolen
5. ADJOURNMENT
To the layman, it is postponement. When a matter in court is set for another day for parties to appear, the matter is said to be adjourned.
6. ALIBI
A plea of not being present when a crime was committed. When you plead alibi the case (proceeding) would have to stop for investigation.
7. ASSAULT
An act of unlawfully touching somebody intentionally or recklessly, normally accompanied with battery (violent assault).
8. AUDI ALTERAM PATERM
Audi – to hear Alteram – alternative, alter
To hear or listen to the other side, that is, no man should be condemned unheard. He who shall decide anything without the other side having been heard, although may have said what is right, will not have done what is right).
9. BIGAMY
1. Being married under ordinance and going into another marriage whiles the initial marriage is existing.
2. When you know someone is married and you allow the person to marry you. You can be charge for bigamy
10. CERTIORARI
A prerogative writ or order to which a superior court quashes or cancels a lower court’s orders given without it (lower court) jurisdiction. This order can also bring them (lower court) back within the limits assigned by law, whenever there has been a failure, or absence or express of jurisdiction.
11. CAVEAT
A warning to a person not to do something until the matter is gone into (investigated) in respect to estate matters. It is a form of injunction.
12. CONTEMPT OF COURT.
When you do anything against the orders of the court or you do anything to prevent justice from being carried out.
13. INTESTATE
When one dies without a will
14. PRECEDENT
An official action, judgment or decision of a court of law that happened in the past and that is seen as or an example or rule to be followed in a similar situation later. Example: when someone steals and is punished for a year. If there is a similar case in the future, that same or exceeding punishment would be meted out to the person.
15. INTENT
Intention, the purpose, mind with which something is done.
16. EQUITY
Equality, fairness. He who comes for equity must come with clean hands.
17. MISDEMEANOUR
A minor offense, example: when someone slaps another person. Misdemeanor is the smallest among the offenses. It normally goes with a fine or caution or both. However, if you kill someone it is a first degree felony.
18. CONVEYANCE
The transfer of one thing form one person to another, the thing or document is a conveyance. An instrument which passes a freehold interest in real property or an interest in real property or an instrument that transfers property from one person to another
19. DE FACTO
Something existing as a matter of fact, example: it is a fact that Ghana has a president.
20. DE JURE
Something existing as a matter of right or with full backing of a legal authority or lawful authority. Example: right to life
21. ADULTERY
Being married and sleeping (having sex) with any other person apart form the one whom you have married.
22. RAPE
Having sexual intercourse with a woman above sixteen years without her consent
23. CARNAL KNWOLEDGE
Having sex the missionary way
• Inflagrantedilicto
Seeing the people having sex as it happens (live)
24. AUTREFOIS ACQUIT
When someone pleads autrefois acquit, it means he or she had already been acquitted on a stated offense and as such could not be tried on that same offense.
25. BRUTUM FULMEN
An empty threat
26. HABEAS CORPUS
An order to bring a body, it is used when someone has been unlawfully detained
27. ACTUS REUS
A guilty or bad intention
1. CONSIDERATION
Paying something (valuable in the eyes of the receiver, not necessarily all) for an offer. It usually comes in contract (offer and acceptance). An inducement for something promised.
2. INDEMNITY
It is undertaken not to hold someone responsible for an act or a deed. Some sought of guarantee given to someone not to be responsible for the consequences of any actions (indemnify another). Example: when Emma gives Yaw information about a situation. Emma can tell Yaw to indemnify him. That is, not to hold him (Emma) responsible for any consequences that may result form that piece of information.
3. ACQUITAL
When you are left free in a court of law especially in criminal matters (discharge from court)
4. ACCUSATORIAL PROCEEDINGS
There are two types of handling cases (proceedings)
• Accusatorial (English system)
It is a procedure in the court of law in which it is the duty of a party which is allergen (in criminal cases) to produce that evidence. He who alleges must prove. Example: if you say I have stolen, you have to prove I have stolen.
• Inquisitorial (French system)
The procedure in which the accused would have to prove that he or she is not guilt. Example: if you say I have stolen, I have to prove I have or have not stolen
5. ADJOURNMENT
To the layman, it is postponement. When a matter in court is set for another day for parties to appear, the matter is said to be adjourned.
6. ALIBI
A plea of not being present when a crime was committed. When you plead alibi the case (proceeding) would have to stop for investigation.
7. ASSAULT
An act of unlawfully touching somebody intentionally or recklessly, normally accompanied with battery (violent assault).
8. AUDI ALTERAM PATERM
Audi – to hear Alteram – alternative, alter
To hear or listen to the other side, that is, no man should be condemned unheard. He who shall decide anything without the other side having been heard, although may have said what is right, will not have done what is right).
9. BIGAMY
1. Being married under ordinance and going into another marriage whiles the initial marriage is existing.
2. When you know someone is married and you allow the person to marry you. You can be charge for bigamy
10. CERTIORARI
A prerogative writ or order to which a superior court quashes or cancels a lower court’s orders given without it (lower court) jurisdiction. This order can also bring them (lower court) back within the limits assigned by law, whenever there has been a failure, or absence or express of jurisdiction.
11. CAVEAT
A warning to a person not to do something until the matter is gone into (investigated) in respect to estate matters. It is a form of injunction.
12. CONTEMPT OF COURT.
When you do anything against the orders of the court or you do anything to prevent justice from being carried out.
13. INTESTATE
When one dies without a will
14. PRECEDENT
An official action, judgment or decision of a court of law that happened in the past and that is seen as or an example or rule to be followed in a similar situation later. Example: when someone steals and is punished for a year. If there is a similar case in the future, that same or exceeding punishment would be meted out to the person.
15. INTENT
Intention, the purpose, mind with which something is done.
16. EQUITY
Equality, fairness. He who comes for equity must come with clean hands.
17. MISDEMEANOUR
A minor offense, example: when someone slaps another person. Misdemeanor is the smallest among the offenses. It normally goes with a fine or caution or both. However, if you kill someone it is a first degree felony.
18. CONVEYANCE
The transfer of one thing form one person to another, the thing or document is a conveyance. An instrument which passes a freehold interest in real property or an interest in real property or an instrument that transfers property from one person to another
19. DE FACTO
Something existing as a matter of fact, example: it is a fact that Ghana has a president.
20. DE JURE
Something existing as a matter of right or with full backing of a legal authority or lawful authority. Example: right to life
21. ADULTERY
Being married and sleeping (having sex) with any other person apart form the one whom you have married.
22. RAPE
Having sexual intercourse with a woman above sixteen years without her consent
23. CARNAL KNWOLEDGE
Having sex the missionary way
• Inflagrantedilicto
Seeing the people having sex as it happens (live)
24. AUTREFOIS ACQUIT
When someone pleads autrefois acquit, it means he or she had already been acquitted on a stated offense and as such could not be tried on that same offense.
25. BRUTUM FULMEN
An empty threat
26. HABEAS CORPUS
An order to bring a body, it is used when someone has been unlawfully detained
27. ACTUS REUS
A guilty or bad intention
PRINT JOURNALISM
PREPARE A FOUR PARAGRAPH NEWS STORY ON THE INTER-FACULTY LECTURE.
Ghana’s response to global corporate social responsibility has been slow and limited. This has been attributed to weak mechanisms for improving corporate social responsibility of organizations to society.
The acting rector of the Ghana institute of journalism Mr. Kweku Rockson said this when he was delivering an inter- faculty lecture at the institute on the topic “how responsible Ghana has been to the Global Corporate Social Responsibility (CRS) imperative?” He said “the ranking process for the Ghana Club 100 shows a distribution size of 20%, profitability 25%... and social responsibility only 10%”.
He therefore called on organizations to undertake ‘CRS advocacy’, engage in capacity building activities and take into cognizance the needs of society.
To him, this is the surest way of balancing corporate power with responsibility and enhancing the livelihood of people within their catchment area.
Ghana’s response to global corporate social responsibility has been slow and limited. This has been attributed to weak mechanisms for improving corporate social responsibility of organizations to society.
The acting rector of the Ghana institute of journalism Mr. Kweku Rockson said this when he was delivering an inter- faculty lecture at the institute on the topic “how responsible Ghana has been to the Global Corporate Social Responsibility (CRS) imperative?” He said “the ranking process for the Ghana Club 100 shows a distribution size of 20%, profitability 25%... and social responsibility only 10%”.
He therefore called on organizations to undertake ‘CRS advocacy’, engage in capacity building activities and take into cognizance the needs of society.
To him, this is the surest way of balancing corporate power with responsibility and enhancing the livelihood of people within their catchment area.
MASS COMMUNICATION
COMPARE AND CONTRAST LIBERTARIAN THEORY AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
Normative theory is any theory which seeks to explain or predict what would happen under theoretical constraints; what ought to be done. (Susan Mayhew, a Dictionary of Geography 2004) There are four main theories under the normative theory which were propounded by Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Peterson. These theories (Libertarian, Social Responsibility, Soviet Communist and Authoritarian) involve ideal views of how journalism or media ought to be or are expected to be. These theories were in attempt to clarify the connection between the media and political society in the modern world. It is essential to examine these theories (social responsibility and libertarian theories) noting their obvious similarities and differences. However in order to properly determine the relationship between the two and their association to the press, in-depth examination proves essential.
Libertarian theory marks a break from authoritarian system of society in that no longer was the truth unattainable by common men. No longer did knowledge itself need to be handed down from a high authority from which both understanding and truth traditionally acquired. From these origins of the rejection of authority came the ideas that formed the postulate of libertarian theory. It is a political theory that holds the rights of the individual above all other considerations and seeks to minimize the power of the state to the safeguarding of these rights. (http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorysocial responsibility)
Social Responsibility theory, on the other hand is an outgrowth of libertarian theory. It is an ethical theory that an entity whether it is government, corporation, organization or individual has a responsibility to society. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). It asserts that the press is always a reflection of the social and political configuration within which it operates.
Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories are the basis upon which the free press should and does run in a democratic society. It is therefore important to examine their similarities and differences.
The two theories explained earlier assert that the press must allow the individuals to have ‘the free market place for ideas’. Meaning, the media serves to provide a ‘forum’ in which people can exchange ideas, and through such Socratic dialogue, can arrive at the truth. It must also provide a market place for ideas where all ideas of men should be included. For as John Stuart Mill wrote ‘to suppress any idea, no matter how unlikely it may be, would mean that one is potentially suppressing the truth. Even if it is not the truth, suppressing objections could hinder in the possibility of actually, attaining or maintaining the strength of the truth. The media in Ghana try to provide a free market place for ideas by seeking viewers, listeners, readers, audience comments on a particular topic broadcast or published in the mass media. Phone in sections of programmes are all in attempt to provide a free market place for ideas. Despite the similarities between these two theories, the Social Responsibility theory critiques the Libertarian theory for discarding its role to serve free market place in the face of its own economic ends, submitting to businesses, allowing conditions necessary for advertisers to control or influence editorial principles , trampling on the notion of free objective reporting.
Moreover, both theories talk of how the press should operate/function in a particular political structure. This means, both theories emphasizes on the media’s structure (the political and economic system in which the media operates) and its performance (how the media carry out their roles /functions in the given political and economic system). In relation to the functions/ performance of the press both theories sees the function of the press as entertainment, educational tool, a check on government or watchdog role and maintaining self-sufficiency via advertising sales to be free from external demand. However, the Social Responsible theorists’ criticize the Libertarian interpretation in this regard due to the fact the media in Libertarian society trends to put emphasis on economics over educational and information value. The press in Ghana for example in a way emphasizes on economic ends thereby allowing more advertisements to run within programmes which should carry educative and informative messages. For instance, a programme like ‘Adult Education’ is broadcast air and there is numerous advertisements of alcohol beverages within such a programme which should carry educative and informative messages.
Also, Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories have an assumption regarding the nature of man. These theories abandon the ideas of coveting knowledge as in authoritarian system and instead accept scientific and Socratic method to arrive at the truth that is attainable by rational man. The difference here is that, the Libertarian theory sees man as being capable of distinguishing between truth and falsehood, between good and evil (John Milton, John Locke, Saint Simone) whereas in Social Responsibility theory man is seen as passive and indolent, unwilling to use his reason instead choosing acceptance of that which he is told. As such there is a necessity for those who have awareness (the press) to spur him into utilizing his reason. Although the Social Responsibility theory sees man as reluctant participant in seeking knowledge and truth, it concedes to the objectives stated in the libertarian theory but does not hesitate to point out the ineffectiveness of self- righting process. That is why the media in Social Responsibility theory brings out programmes that spur the reasons of man. The media (Ghana) for instance organizes programmes such as Mentor, Dance Fever, Gang Star, Bands Alive, Stars of the Future, MTN Project Fame and so on. All these programmes are geared towards spurring up man’s senses.
In addition, the idea of freedom is propagated by both theories. The freedom the press should have in performing it functions in a country. In the Libertarian theory, it asserts that no other entity takes precedence over the individual. This idea was shaped by Locke who made the assertion that: ‘the government is a privilege institution whose guardianship and authority of state power could be removed if and when the people extracted their support.’ This is also evident in the mind of John Stuart Mill ‘the only instance in which state restrictions on an individual could be tolerated is if that person was harming another, or has the concept of negative freedom’. The Social Responsibility theory on the other hand supports the idea of freedom of the press but in a different direction. It asserts that the press should be free but work within a self principled responsibility.
The Social Responsibility theory began to bring to the fore front the issue of moral responsibility of the press, which one will encounter nowhere when looking at the Libertarian theory. The press in the Libertarian theory was seen as endangering public morals and also paid more attention to superficial and sensations in its coverage of current happenings.
In conclusion, both theories including the other two theories (Authoritarian and Soviet Communist) have been criticized a lot. Among these criticisms were:
They fail to recognize other prevailing political systems like the Scandinavian model.
They fail to recognize media systems in the third world countries (developing countries).
Too idealistic (strong belief in perfect standards).
They fail to recognize changes in societies and political thinking over time.
References
• Susan Mayhew, A Dictionary of Geography 2004, originally published by Oxford University Press 2004.
• Research Machines plc 2009, http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorySocialresponsibility.
• Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• A criticism of Social Responsibility Theory an Ethical Perspective. Journal article by Scott Lloyd; Journal of Mass Media Ethics Vol. 6, 1991
• McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, Denis McQuail, fifth edition.
Normative theory is any theory which seeks to explain or predict what would happen under theoretical constraints; what ought to be done. (Susan Mayhew, a Dictionary of Geography 2004) There are four main theories under the normative theory which were propounded by Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Peterson. These theories (Libertarian, Social Responsibility, Soviet Communist and Authoritarian) involve ideal views of how journalism or media ought to be or are expected to be. These theories were in attempt to clarify the connection between the media and political society in the modern world. It is essential to examine these theories (social responsibility and libertarian theories) noting their obvious similarities and differences. However in order to properly determine the relationship between the two and their association to the press, in-depth examination proves essential.
Libertarian theory marks a break from authoritarian system of society in that no longer was the truth unattainable by common men. No longer did knowledge itself need to be handed down from a high authority from which both understanding and truth traditionally acquired. From these origins of the rejection of authority came the ideas that formed the postulate of libertarian theory. It is a political theory that holds the rights of the individual above all other considerations and seeks to minimize the power of the state to the safeguarding of these rights. (http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorysocial responsibility)
Social Responsibility theory, on the other hand is an outgrowth of libertarian theory. It is an ethical theory that an entity whether it is government, corporation, organization or individual has a responsibility to society. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). It asserts that the press is always a reflection of the social and political configuration within which it operates.
Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories are the basis upon which the free press should and does run in a democratic society. It is therefore important to examine their similarities and differences.
The two theories explained earlier assert that the press must allow the individuals to have ‘the free market place for ideas’. Meaning, the media serves to provide a ‘forum’ in which people can exchange ideas, and through such Socratic dialogue, can arrive at the truth. It must also provide a market place for ideas where all ideas of men should be included. For as John Stuart Mill wrote ‘to suppress any idea, no matter how unlikely it may be, would mean that one is potentially suppressing the truth. Even if it is not the truth, suppressing objections could hinder in the possibility of actually, attaining or maintaining the strength of the truth. The media in Ghana try to provide a free market place for ideas by seeking viewers, listeners, readers, audience comments on a particular topic broadcast or published in the mass media. Phone in sections of programmes are all in attempt to provide a free market place for ideas. Despite the similarities between these two theories, the Social Responsibility theory critiques the Libertarian theory for discarding its role to serve free market place in the face of its own economic ends, submitting to businesses, allowing conditions necessary for advertisers to control or influence editorial principles , trampling on the notion of free objective reporting.
Moreover, both theories talk of how the press should operate/function in a particular political structure. This means, both theories emphasizes on the media’s structure (the political and economic system in which the media operates) and its performance (how the media carry out their roles /functions in the given political and economic system). In relation to the functions/ performance of the press both theories sees the function of the press as entertainment, educational tool, a check on government or watchdog role and maintaining self-sufficiency via advertising sales to be free from external demand. However, the Social Responsible theorists’ criticize the Libertarian interpretation in this regard due to the fact the media in Libertarian society trends to put emphasis on economics over educational and information value. The press in Ghana for example in a way emphasizes on economic ends thereby allowing more advertisements to run within programmes which should carry educative and informative messages. For instance, a programme like ‘Adult Education’ is broadcast air and there is numerous advertisements of alcohol beverages within such a programme which should carry educative and informative messages.
Also, Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories have an assumption regarding the nature of man. These theories abandon the ideas of coveting knowledge as in authoritarian system and instead accept scientific and Socratic method to arrive at the truth that is attainable by rational man. The difference here is that, the Libertarian theory sees man as being capable of distinguishing between truth and falsehood, between good and evil (John Milton, John Locke, Saint Simone) whereas in Social Responsibility theory man is seen as passive and indolent, unwilling to use his reason instead choosing acceptance of that which he is told. As such there is a necessity for those who have awareness (the press) to spur him into utilizing his reason. Although the Social Responsibility theory sees man as reluctant participant in seeking knowledge and truth, it concedes to the objectives stated in the libertarian theory but does not hesitate to point out the ineffectiveness of self- righting process. That is why the media in Social Responsibility theory brings out programmes that spur the reasons of man. The media (Ghana) for instance organizes programmes such as Mentor, Dance Fever, Gang Star, Bands Alive, Stars of the Future, MTN Project Fame and so on. All these programmes are geared towards spurring up man’s senses.
In addition, the idea of freedom is propagated by both theories. The freedom the press should have in performing it functions in a country. In the Libertarian theory, it asserts that no other entity takes precedence over the individual. This idea was shaped by Locke who made the assertion that: ‘the government is a privilege institution whose guardianship and authority of state power could be removed if and when the people extracted their support.’ This is also evident in the mind of John Stuart Mill ‘the only instance in which state restrictions on an individual could be tolerated is if that person was harming another, or has the concept of negative freedom’. The Social Responsibility theory on the other hand supports the idea of freedom of the press but in a different direction. It asserts that the press should be free but work within a self principled responsibility.
The Social Responsibility theory began to bring to the fore front the issue of moral responsibility of the press, which one will encounter nowhere when looking at the Libertarian theory. The press in the Libertarian theory was seen as endangering public morals and also paid more attention to superficial and sensations in its coverage of current happenings.
In conclusion, both theories including the other two theories (Authoritarian and Soviet Communist) have been criticized a lot. Among these criticisms were:
They fail to recognize other prevailing political systems like the Scandinavian model.
They fail to recognize media systems in the third world countries (developing countries).
Too idealistic (strong belief in perfect standards).
They fail to recognize changes in societies and political thinking over time.
References
• Susan Mayhew, A Dictionary of Geography 2004, originally published by Oxford University Press 2004.
• Research Machines plc 2009, http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorySocialresponsibility.
• Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• A criticism of Social Responsibility Theory an Ethical Perspective. Journal article by Scott Lloyd; Journal of Mass Media Ethics Vol. 6, 1991
• McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, Denis McQuail, fifth edition.
BROADCAST JOURNALISM
TELEVISION AND RADIO WHICH IS MORE POWERFUL IN RELATION TO COVERAGE AND PRODUCTION.
Radio and television (TV) are both means of transmitting information to people. Radio is a process of sending and receiving messages through the air using electromagnetic waves. Television on the other hand is a piece of electrical equipment with a screen and which you can watch programmes with moving pictures and sound (OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER’S DICTIONARY). As to which is more powerful (being able to control and influence people or events) in terms of coverage and production I would say RADIO.
Radio as compared to television has a wider coverage area. In Ghana, statistics (GHANA PRESS, MEDIA, TV, RADIO, NEWSPAPER BASIC DATA) shows that number of television sets per 1000 is 87.00, number of TV sets is 1,730,000 and number of TV stations is 11 as compared to radio. Number of radio receivers per 1000 is 221.2, number of radio receivers is 4,400,000 and number of radio stations is 21. The differences in the figures affirm the wider coverage of radio. Moreover, in Ghana most radio stations are able to transmit radio signals even to the northern side of the country unlike most TV stations which are limited to certain regions. Also, radio can be found everywhere, in cars, on phones and so on unlike TV.
Television is known to be audio-visual while radio is audio. This undisputed fact does not necessarily make TV more powerful over radio in terms of production. Production in radio is less difficult as compared to TV and such people are willing to go into radio production. For instance, in the production of news. A radio station would need a presenter, some technicians to operate the machines and a compelling message. The presenter “talk” the script since (S) he is communicating to the ‘ears’ of the listeners. It helps the listeners to be imaginative. Base on this, radio is the fastest medium to communicate information, TV stations are one minute late to communicate information especially live programmes. Unlike television that you would need presenters, camera men, lightening, technicians, make-up beauticians, background settings, even costume of the presenters. This makes TV production more difficult and less powerful.
The powerfulness of radio is seen in its ability to impact or influence majority of the people. Radio stations are able to carry out a lot of productions within a day as compared to television. The more productions (in relation to programmes) the more powerful you become since you influence a lot of people through the medium.
It is well known that television has the ability to capture the complete attention of people; it uses pictures, words, sounds and music to emotionally move and motivate people into action. These features of television, truly makes it powerful but not as radio since it has impact or influences not the majority of the people.
In conclusion, I would attest to the fact that television has exceptional features as explained above but radio is very powerful in terms of coverage and production.
Radio and television (TV) are both means of transmitting information to people. Radio is a process of sending and receiving messages through the air using electromagnetic waves. Television on the other hand is a piece of electrical equipment with a screen and which you can watch programmes with moving pictures and sound (OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER’S DICTIONARY). As to which is more powerful (being able to control and influence people or events) in terms of coverage and production I would say RADIO.
Radio as compared to television has a wider coverage area. In Ghana, statistics (GHANA PRESS, MEDIA, TV, RADIO, NEWSPAPER BASIC DATA) shows that number of television sets per 1000 is 87.00, number of TV sets is 1,730,000 and number of TV stations is 11 as compared to radio. Number of radio receivers per 1000 is 221.2, number of radio receivers is 4,400,000 and number of radio stations is 21. The differences in the figures affirm the wider coverage of radio. Moreover, in Ghana most radio stations are able to transmit radio signals even to the northern side of the country unlike most TV stations which are limited to certain regions. Also, radio can be found everywhere, in cars, on phones and so on unlike TV.
Television is known to be audio-visual while radio is audio. This undisputed fact does not necessarily make TV more powerful over radio in terms of production. Production in radio is less difficult as compared to TV and such people are willing to go into radio production. For instance, in the production of news. A radio station would need a presenter, some technicians to operate the machines and a compelling message. The presenter “talk” the script since (S) he is communicating to the ‘ears’ of the listeners. It helps the listeners to be imaginative. Base on this, radio is the fastest medium to communicate information, TV stations are one minute late to communicate information especially live programmes. Unlike television that you would need presenters, camera men, lightening, technicians, make-up beauticians, background settings, even costume of the presenters. This makes TV production more difficult and less powerful.
The powerfulness of radio is seen in its ability to impact or influence majority of the people. Radio stations are able to carry out a lot of productions within a day as compared to television. The more productions (in relation to programmes) the more powerful you become since you influence a lot of people through the medium.
It is well known that television has the ability to capture the complete attention of people; it uses pictures, words, sounds and music to emotionally move and motivate people into action. These features of television, truly makes it powerful but not as radio since it has impact or influences not the majority of the people.
In conclusion, I would attest to the fact that television has exceptional features as explained above but radio is very powerful in terms of coverage and production.
ADVERTISING
DESCRIBE ANY ADVERT OF YOUR CHOICE AND DICUSS THE ELEMENT OF THE MARKETING MIX.
E-ZWICH ADVERTISEMENT
In a television advert for the e-zwich smart card, a husband question his wife whether she could go about her tasks as planned for the day. She assures him of the ease and comfort she would get from her new e-zwich smart card .She goes all out and within a short period, she is able to take care of all her transactions and she is able to transfer money to her daughter, who later calls to confirm she has received the money. Her mother becomes happy and then talks of how convenient the e-zwich smart card is and of it security, as it uses only the fingerprint of the user. She again talks of its affordability, thus it is free and available at all banks across the country. E-zwich, easy banking for everyone.
PRODUCT; the product in question is the e-zwich smart card, as it is the service being advertised.
PRICE; It is indicated in the advert that the e-zwich smart card is free.
PLACE; the e-zwich smart card is available at all banks says the advert.
PROMOTION; the advertisement is under the promotion in the marketing mix and in the whole it was good. It related well to the marketing mix.
PROCESS; there is a clear indication in the advert that the process is very fast, since within a short period the woman was able to finish all her transactions and even able to transfer money to her daughter at school, who later confirmed of receiving the money.
E-ZWICH ADVERTISEMENT
In a television advert for the e-zwich smart card, a husband question his wife whether she could go about her tasks as planned for the day. She assures him of the ease and comfort she would get from her new e-zwich smart card .She goes all out and within a short period, she is able to take care of all her transactions and she is able to transfer money to her daughter, who later calls to confirm she has received the money. Her mother becomes happy and then talks of how convenient the e-zwich smart card is and of it security, as it uses only the fingerprint of the user. She again talks of its affordability, thus it is free and available at all banks across the country. E-zwich, easy banking for everyone.
PRODUCT; the product in question is the e-zwich smart card, as it is the service being advertised.
PRICE; It is indicated in the advert that the e-zwich smart card is free.
PLACE; the e-zwich smart card is available at all banks says the advert.
PROMOTION; the advertisement is under the promotion in the marketing mix and in the whole it was good. It related well to the marketing mix.
PROCESS; there is a clear indication in the advert that the process is very fast, since within a short period the woman was able to finish all her transactions and even able to transfer money to her daughter at school, who later confirmed of receiving the money.
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