DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public Relations(PR) as defined by the Institute of Public Relations – Ghana is the distinctive management function that identifies , analyzes, establishes and maintain mutually beneficial relationship between an organization and the various publics on whom its success or failure depends on. The practice of PR has passed through a number of stages and as such a lot of people had contributed to its present state. Key among these contributors is P.T BARNUM, EDWARD BERNAYS, IVY LEE AND ARTHUR W. PAGE, also known as the fathers of PR. Their contributions to PR could be seen in different directions, due to the era each of them found themselves. The various ways in which they contributed to the profession is what has been couched by Grunig and Hunt’s as the ‘four models/traditions of PR’. These traditions describe distinct approaches to public relations in the context of a 130-year time-line that show public relations have evolved. These four models are the Press Agentry/Rhetorician/Publicity, Journalistic/Public information, Persuasive/Asymmetrical, relationship-building/two-way communication/symmetrical models.
Phineas Taylor Barnum (July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) contributed immensely to the PR profession. He was an American showman businessman and entertainer, remembered for founding the circus. Although Barnum was also an author, publisher, philanthropist and sometimes politician, he said to himself, ‘I am a showman by profession’. He founded a weekly paper called ‘The herald of freedom’ in Danbury in 1829. Barnum started as a storekeeper and he learned haggling, striking a bargain and using deception to make a sale. P.T Barnum is often associated with the Press Agentry/Rhetorician/publicity model. In this type of model it is a one-way communication and uses persuasion and manipulation to influence audience to behave as the organization desires. Here, truth was not necessary, with roots in the 19th century press agents worked to influence public opinion by creating news. P.T Barnum was a master of the art form, weaving fantasy and half truths into his messages. Press agents were liars at least some of the time- but it got their clients into the headline and that were what mattered. The aim is behaviour manipulation. This model is much realized in P.T Barnum’s contributions when in 1835, he began as a showman with his purchase and exhibition of a blind and almost completely paralyzed slave woman, Joice Hieth claimed by Barnum to have been the nurse of George Washington, and to be over 160. The truth in this was Joice Hieth died in 1836 and her age is not more than 80. As part of his manipulative ways of contributions, P.T Barnum exploited Tom Thumb. Aside Tom Thumb (the smallest person that ever walked alone) who was then four years of age but was stated to be eleven, he used the profits from the Lind (Jenny Lind) tour for his own business but used Jenny Lind as a means to persuade people. A feature associated with this model is persuading and manipulating people to accept your line of thinking and as such Barnum’s next challenge was to change attitudes about a theater from ‘dens of evil’ to palaces of edification and delight, respectable middle class entertainment. In doing this, he built the largest and most modern theater and named it ‘moral lecture room’, to avoid seedy connotation and to attract a family crowd and about to get the approval of the moral crusaders of New York City. He became a rhetorician (good public speaker) when he started a lecture tour, mostly as a temperance speaker.
Edward Louis Bernays (November 22, 1891- March, 1995) was a US pioneer in the field of PR. He was one of the first to attempt to manipulate public opinion using the subconscious. Bernays the originator of modern public relations was named one of the 100 most influential Americans of the 20th century by life magazine. He felt manipulation was necessary in society, which he regarded as irrational and dangerous as a result of the ‘herd instinct’ that Trotter describes. Due to the era in which he found himself, he is known to have contributed to the PR profession using the persuasive/asymmetrical model. While asymmetrical communication is two way, the goal is anything but balanced. It’s all about persuasion to trigger a transaction, thus its popularity with marketers. Bernay’s PR efforts helped to popularize Freud’s theories in the United States. He also pioneered the PR industry’s use of psychology and other social sciences to design its public persuasion campaigns. He couched the statement “if we understand mechanism and motives of the group mind, is it not possible to control and regiment the mass according to our will without their knowing about it? The recent practice of propaganda has proved that it is possible, at least up to a certain limits”. Bernays began his career as press agent in 1913, counseling to theaters, concerts and the ballet and as part of his persuasive contributions to PR; he worked together with Carl Byoir and John Price Jones to influence public opinion towards supporting American Participation in World War 1. Also, one of his favourite techniques for manipulating public opinion was the indirect use of ‘third party authorities’ to plead his client’s causes. According to him ‘if you can influence the leaders, either with or without their conscious cooperation, you automatically influence the group which they sway’. In order to promote sales of bacon for example, he conducted a survey of physicians and reported their recommendation that people eat heavy breakfast. He sent the results of the survey to five thousand physicians along with publicity touting bacon and eggs as a heavy breakfast. As part of his contributions to the profession he held the first public relations course at the University of New York in 1923. Publishing the first ground breaking book on public relations entitled ‘crystallizing public opinion’. Much of Bernays reputation today stems from his persistent public relations campaign to build his own reputation as America’s number one publicist. During his active years, many of his peers in the industry were offended be Bernay’s continuous self promotion. According to Scott Cutlip,” Bernays was a brilliant person who had a spectacular career, but, to use an old fashioned word, he was a braggart.”
On the par with Edward Bernays as the most sought after public relations counsel of decade was Ivy Lee (July 16, 1877 – November 9, 1934). His contributions can be seen in relation to the Journalistic/public information model. Somewhere in the early 20th century enlightened PR types shifted toward truth and accuracy in communication, but they did little more than distribute information. Acting in the role of “journalist in residence,” a PR person under the public information model used no formal research to guide his work. But the move away from pseudo events and half-truths was a significant shift toward more ethical practices. One-way communication is the focus of the public information model. Press releases, brochures, even static Web content, are tools used by these information dispensers. They tell the story and hope someone is paying attention. Ivy lee worked as a newspaper reporter and stringer. He is considered by some to be the founder of modern public relations and the first to practice real PR. He found himself in era where journalists were prominent and it was an era that real PR was practiced. In this model it acknowledges the public’s right to information. In this respect, he together with George Parker established the united state’s 3rd public relations firm, in late 1904. Lee evolved his philosophy in 1906 into the ‘declaration of principles’, the first circulation of the concept that PR practitioners have a public responsibility that extends beyond obligations to the client. As part of his contributions to PR, after an accident (the Pennsylvania railroad), that same year, Lee issued what is often considered to be the very first press release convincing the company to openly disclose information to journalist before they could hear information from elsewhere. He propagated ‘the public has a right to information’. One key instruction he made was ‘tell the truth, because sooner or later, the public will find out anyway. And if the public doesn’t like what you are doing, change your policies and bring into line with what people want’. The public was no longer to be damned but was to be told the truth even if it was at the expense of the clients or organization. He encouraged his clients or organization to march their words with their action. In all this, he saw himself as a PR practitioner between the public and the organization as a laison. However, the term PR is to be found for the first time in the 1897 year book of railway literature. Lee is considered to be the father of modern PR when from 1913-1914, he successfully lobbied for a successful railroad rate increase from a reluctant federal government. It could be argued that lee’s direction had something to do with two- way communication model, when he espoused a philosophy consistent with what, has sometimes been called the ‘two-way streets’ approach to PR. In which PR consists of helping clients, listen as well as communicate messages to their publics. In practice however, Lee often engaged in one way propaganda on behalf of clients despised by the public.
Arthur W. Page, the first person in PR‘s position to serve as an officer and member of the Board of Directors of major public corporation. He also served as vice president of public relations for the American telephone and telegraph company form 1927-1046. He is often associated with relationship-building/two way communication/symmetrical model. This model uses communication to negotiate with publics, resolve conflict, and promote mutual understanding and respect between the organization and its public(s). The 2-way symmetrical model casts public relations in the role of mediator versus persuader. Under that model, PR pros listen to the concerns of both clients and key publics and help them adapt to one another. The PR professional must represent the interests of ALL parties while being paid by only one. It works well with enlightened management who take a long-term view, but they’re rare birds these days. In this model the one or organization giving the information expects feedback and works with it. Change is expected at tow levels – the organization and the public depending on the feedback generated. Communication is used to manage conflict and it is in a form of dialogue and more reciprocal. The relationship between the organization and the public should be balanced. The boundary spanning theory is prominent- the PR practitioner has two levels of communication. That is externally and internally. Arthur page was distinguished as an outstanding public relations practitioner, churchman, educator and statesman. He propagated that “all business in democratic country begins with public permission and exists by public approval”. As part of his contributions propagated an aspect of the boundary spanning theory which is the systems theory that states that an organization is an entire system and it has various parts that must work together. In view of this, Page practice d seven principle s of PR management as a means of implementing philosophy. The principles of business conduct for which he became known have influenced thousands of American thought leaders during the past six decades.
• Tell the truth. Let the public know what's happening and provide an accurate picture of the company's character, ideals and practices.
• Prove it with action. Public perception of an organization is determined 90 percent by what it does and 10 percent by what it says.
• Listen to the customer. To serve the company well, understand what the public wants and needs. Keep top decision makers and other employees informed about public reaction to company products, policies and practices.
• Manage for tomorrow. Anticipate public reaction and eliminate practices that create difficulties. Generate goodwill.
• Conduct public relations as if the whole company depends on it. A corporate relation is a management function. No corporate strategy should be implemented without considering its impact on the public. The public relations professional is a policymaker capable of handling a wide range of corporate communications activities.
• Realize a company's true character is expressed by its people. The strongest opinions -- good or bad -- about a company are shaped by the words and deeds of its employees. As a result, every employee -- active or retired -- is involved with public relations. It is the responsibility of corporate communications to support each employee's capability and desire to be an honest, knowledgeable ambassador to customers, friends, shareowners and public officials.
• Remain calm, patient and good-humored. Lay the groundwork for public relations miracles with consistent and reasoned attention to information and contacts. This may be difficult with today's contentious 24-hour news cycles and endless number of watchdog organizations. But when a crisis arises, remember, cool heads communicate best.
In conclusion, all the traditions or model still exist in modern PR. Press agentry is alive and well in the entertainment business to this day. The public information model can be witnessed in higher education; in addition to that, Government PR folks also do a lot of one-way storytelling to “get the word out.” The Persuasion / asymmetrical model. Grunig and Hunt called it “scientific persuasion,” and it remains the stock-in-trade of advertisers everywhere. Today’s amoral, profit-lusting business environment doesn’t leave much room for the two (2)-way symmetrical model, which, by definition, may not be self-centered. Makes it hard to justify shareholder greed and seven (7)-figure bonuses when you have to worry about fairness, balance and the whole “relationship” thing.
Monday, July 12, 2010
PUBLIC RELATIONS
RELEVANCE OF PR TO A DEVELOPING COUNTRY LIKE GHANA
Public relations is fundamentally the art and science of establishing relationships between an organization and its key audience. Public relations (PR) according to the Institute of Public Relations Ghana is “a distinctive management function that identifies establishes and maintains mutual beneficial relationship between an organization and the various public on whom its success or failure depends.”
The importance of PR to developing countries like Ghana can be seen in the role it plays:
PR functions as advertising in a subtle manner. Organizations convey messages about their products and services through the PR department by organizing activities which would call for media attention. For instance: donations to vulnerable and charitable homes. Businesses in Ghana practice PR in order to convey messages about their product and services. Customers are likely to be influenced to make a purchasing decision. There is a possibility for these organizations to achieve an increase in profit. For example: banks are now advertising their services through their PR department. This increase the purchasing rate of the organizations’ products and services. It then results in the growth of the economy. Also, organizations pay taxes to the government which is used for national development (developmental projects: road constructions, hospitals, schools and KVIPS).
Corporations and business entities reach local government and legislators through the PR department. When a business is established there is the need for that business to develop a mutual beneficial relationship between the business entity and the government. Through lobbying (an even more specialized and criticized part of public affairs attempts to influence legislative and regulatory decisions in government) the PR department of organizations is able to influence legislative and regulatory decisions to favour the organization. This creates a favourable business climate for the organizations as a result of favourable legislations enacted by government. It also attracts investors both within and outside the country to invest in the country (Ghana). When investors come to the country and establish businesses, it creates employment. For instance due to the favourable business climate in relation to network services, it has attracted other network services outside the country to establish their business in the country (Ghana). Example: Zain and Globacom.
PR creates an employment option. With the emergence of PR it has created employment to many people in the country. People go in to study PR and become practitioners who are then employed into organizations. Institutions have also been set up to help train people to become PR practitioners. For example: the establishment of the institute of public relations Ghana. This helps to improve the literacy rate of the country and also curbs the unfortunate phenomenon of unemployment.
Moreover, due to the effectiveness of PR Ghana has a favourable image on the international scene. This has attracted most developmental agencies to work in Ghana. For instance: United Nation Development Program (UNDP), United States Agency for International Development (USAID). These agencies help to train professionals like journalists on how to report on issues.
In the nutshell, the above stated points clearly depict the relevance of PR to a developing country like Ghana. It boost the economy, helps in national development, creates favourable business- climate and creates employment.
Public relations is fundamentally the art and science of establishing relationships between an organization and its key audience. Public relations (PR) according to the Institute of Public Relations Ghana is “a distinctive management function that identifies establishes and maintains mutual beneficial relationship between an organization and the various public on whom its success or failure depends.”
The importance of PR to developing countries like Ghana can be seen in the role it plays:
PR functions as advertising in a subtle manner. Organizations convey messages about their products and services through the PR department by organizing activities which would call for media attention. For instance: donations to vulnerable and charitable homes. Businesses in Ghana practice PR in order to convey messages about their product and services. Customers are likely to be influenced to make a purchasing decision. There is a possibility for these organizations to achieve an increase in profit. For example: banks are now advertising their services through their PR department. This increase the purchasing rate of the organizations’ products and services. It then results in the growth of the economy. Also, organizations pay taxes to the government which is used for national development (developmental projects: road constructions, hospitals, schools and KVIPS).
Corporations and business entities reach local government and legislators through the PR department. When a business is established there is the need for that business to develop a mutual beneficial relationship between the business entity and the government. Through lobbying (an even more specialized and criticized part of public affairs attempts to influence legislative and regulatory decisions in government) the PR department of organizations is able to influence legislative and regulatory decisions to favour the organization. This creates a favourable business climate for the organizations as a result of favourable legislations enacted by government. It also attracts investors both within and outside the country to invest in the country (Ghana). When investors come to the country and establish businesses, it creates employment. For instance due to the favourable business climate in relation to network services, it has attracted other network services outside the country to establish their business in the country (Ghana). Example: Zain and Globacom.
PR creates an employment option. With the emergence of PR it has created employment to many people in the country. People go in to study PR and become practitioners who are then employed into organizations. Institutions have also been set up to help train people to become PR practitioners. For example: the establishment of the institute of public relations Ghana. This helps to improve the literacy rate of the country and also curbs the unfortunate phenomenon of unemployment.
Moreover, due to the effectiveness of PR Ghana has a favourable image on the international scene. This has attracted most developmental agencies to work in Ghana. For instance: United Nation Development Program (UNDP), United States Agency for International Development (USAID). These agencies help to train professionals like journalists on how to report on issues.
In the nutshell, the above stated points clearly depict the relevance of PR to a developing country like Ghana. It boost the economy, helps in national development, creates favourable business- climate and creates employment.
PUBLIC RELATIONS
THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE-TESTING EVALUATION IN PUBLIC RELATIONS (PR)
Evaluation is the means for an objective overall performance analysis. Evaluation is essentially research that helps to know how you (organization) perform but not to prove who is right or wrong before or during or after the implementation of a programme. For the purposes of Public Relations there are two types of Evaluation of which pre-testing is the first and then post- testing.
Pre-testing evaluation as the name implies, precedes the implementation of a PR programme. It is used to try out communication materials developed for a particular public on a pilot group before implementing a programme. The idea of pre- testing evaluation is not to determine the success or failure of a communication programme but the understanding of the communication material by the publics.
Pre-testing evaluation saves time. Programmes as they exist are in phases and are time bound. When pre-testing evaluation is conducted it helps the PR person to know how the public understand the communication material (e.g. Posters, leaflets, pamphlets) which is in view of a programme in the pipe-line. When the PR person is convinced that the pilot group understands the communication material then he or she goes on to set a time frame for implementing that programme. When the pilot group does not understand, strategies are developed to help them to understand before programme is implemented. This would help the organizations to work within time frame set for each phase of programmes.
Additionally, pre- testing helps to save money or resources. When pre-testing is done, it helps the organization to know exactly how much money or resources would be needed for a programme but when it is not done an organization would probably waste or would not know exactly how much or resources would be needed for a programme. For instance, when posters are sent out and it is realized that the public do not understand, it can easily be changed since there is a separate budgeting for Pre-testing evaluation. When pre-testing is not done, programme is implemented and the public do not understand the communication material. Which money or resources would be used to change the communication material? Since the programme has already been budgeted for. So, pre-testing is essential before any programme is implemented to save money or resources.
Pre-testing is important since it helps to achieve clarity. Contextually, clarity means the message must be simple and clear. A communicator communicates to express not to impress, so your message should be understandable. When pre-testing is done, it helps you to know the public very well and as such you are able to tailor the message making it simple and clear to get the public to understand. If the message is not clear, the public cannot follow your thought and as such there would be no impact on the public.
In conclusion, it is essential to note that pre-testing evaluation is not done on the actual group but on a pilot group or else the original meaning would be influenced.
Evaluation is the means for an objective overall performance analysis. Evaluation is essentially research that helps to know how you (organization) perform but not to prove who is right or wrong before or during or after the implementation of a programme. For the purposes of Public Relations there are two types of Evaluation of which pre-testing is the first and then post- testing.
Pre-testing evaluation as the name implies, precedes the implementation of a PR programme. It is used to try out communication materials developed for a particular public on a pilot group before implementing a programme. The idea of pre- testing evaluation is not to determine the success or failure of a communication programme but the understanding of the communication material by the publics.
Pre-testing evaluation saves time. Programmes as they exist are in phases and are time bound. When pre-testing evaluation is conducted it helps the PR person to know how the public understand the communication material (e.g. Posters, leaflets, pamphlets) which is in view of a programme in the pipe-line. When the PR person is convinced that the pilot group understands the communication material then he or she goes on to set a time frame for implementing that programme. When the pilot group does not understand, strategies are developed to help them to understand before programme is implemented. This would help the organizations to work within time frame set for each phase of programmes.
Additionally, pre- testing helps to save money or resources. When pre-testing is done, it helps the organization to know exactly how much money or resources would be needed for a programme but when it is not done an organization would probably waste or would not know exactly how much or resources would be needed for a programme. For instance, when posters are sent out and it is realized that the public do not understand, it can easily be changed since there is a separate budgeting for Pre-testing evaluation. When pre-testing is not done, programme is implemented and the public do not understand the communication material. Which money or resources would be used to change the communication material? Since the programme has already been budgeted for. So, pre-testing is essential before any programme is implemented to save money or resources.
Pre-testing is important since it helps to achieve clarity. Contextually, clarity means the message must be simple and clear. A communicator communicates to express not to impress, so your message should be understandable. When pre-testing is done, it helps you to know the public very well and as such you are able to tailor the message making it simple and clear to get the public to understand. If the message is not clear, the public cannot follow your thought and as such there would be no impact on the public.
In conclusion, it is essential to note that pre-testing evaluation is not done on the actual group but on a pilot group or else the original meaning would be influenced.
WRITING SKILLS
IDENTIFY ONE OF THE MODELS OF THE PROCESS APPROACH TO WRITING AND EXPLAIN HOW YOU WILL USE IT TO DEVELOP YOUR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL WRITING SKILLS.
Writing is a process, a group of related activities that you can use in any order or way that is helpful. Good writing doesn’t just happen. “I often use writing to contact my emotions” by Mousumi Behari, student, Aurora Colorado. It comes from following stages in a process and these stages are all linked to thinking. All these stages make up one model of which is recursive in nature. In the book, ELEMENTS OF WRITING authored by James L. Kinneavy and John E. Warriner identifies some stages of the process writing model. The process approach emphasizes on the recursive steps that lead to the final product.
The first stage of a model is pre-writing. There is an undeniable fact that, writing begins with looking for something to write about. One may ask “how do writers find ideas?”Often, an experience or a personal interest sparks an idea. In pre-writing you put down your ideas through some techniques. Which are the writer’s journal, free writing brainstorming, clustering, asking questions, reading and listening with focus, imagining, arranging ideas and the like. Pre-writing is a time to experiment, so your imaginations roam as far and wide as it will go.
Secondly, the first draft serves as the next stage of writing, after identifying a topic, purpose, audience and by organizing your information using pre-writing, it is now time to start writing. Some people write their first drafts quickly, just trying to get their ideas on paper. Pre-writing can also serves as a guide to writing your first draft. Start by writing freely, focusing on expressing your ideas clearly. As you write, new ideas come to mind; include the ideas in your draft. Don’t worry about spelling and grammar errors, you can correct them later.
Evaluating is the next stage of the writing approach as discussed in the book “ELEMENTS OF WRITING”. Evaluating is deciding on the strengths and weakness of your paper. You evaluate writing all the time, whether you think or not. There are two ways of evaluating your draft and these are self evaluation and peer evaluation. Self evaluation involves the individual alone and since you are so close to your own writing, evaluating it is harder than judging someone else’s work. But you could read carefully, by reading it more than once. You could also listen carefully, by reading aloud to yourself. Taking time by setting your draft aside, coming back to it later and reading through it would also aid in the self evaluation. Peer evaluation involves other parties such as your friends who would evaluate your writing. Most writers, even people who make a living by writing, have someone else read and evaluate their work. You can get advice from others by sharing your writing. Moreover, revising serves as one of the most important stage of this model. It is making the necessity to improve your paper. When you revise you make handwritten corrections on your paper, you then write or type a new copy. In revising you add new information, words, sentences, and sometimes a whole paragraph. You sometimes have to take out repeated or unnecessary information and unrelated ideas. Replacement is also use in revising to take out weak or awkward wording of details. In revising, you can reorder to move information, sentences and paragraphs for logical order.
The next stage on this model is proofreading. In proofreading, you carefully reread your paper. You correct your mistakes in grammar, spelling, capitalization and punctuation. In proofreading you focus on one line at a time and read slowly one word at a time. If you are not sure, what is correct, look it up. When proofreading, you could ask yourself the following questions. Is every sentence a complete sentence, not a fragment? Does every sentence begin with a capital letter and end with the correct punctuation mark? Do plural verbs have plural subjects? Do singular verbs have singular subjects? Are verbs in the right form? Are verbs in the right tense? Are adjectives and adverb forms used correctly in making comparisons? Does every pronoun agree with its antecedent (the word it refers to) in number and in gender? Are pronoun references clear? Are all words spelled correctly? Are the plural forms of nouns correct? All these questions would help you to have a good proofreading.
The final stage of this model as discussed by James L. Kinneavy and John E. Warriner in their book ELEMENTS OF WRITING is publishing. After working so hard through the earlier stages of the model, it is now time to publish or share your writing with others. Your finished product should be written in blue or black ink, type or you use a word processor.
In conclusion, using this model will help me in person to be very creative, imaginary, and critical and the like, when it comes to writing. It is because some techniques of some of the stages of the model open me to a greater opportunity of imagining a whole lot of ideas which can easily start writing.
Writing is a process, a group of related activities that you can use in any order or way that is helpful. Good writing doesn’t just happen. “I often use writing to contact my emotions” by Mousumi Behari, student, Aurora Colorado. It comes from following stages in a process and these stages are all linked to thinking. All these stages make up one model of which is recursive in nature. In the book, ELEMENTS OF WRITING authored by James L. Kinneavy and John E. Warriner identifies some stages of the process writing model. The process approach emphasizes on the recursive steps that lead to the final product.
The first stage of a model is pre-writing. There is an undeniable fact that, writing begins with looking for something to write about. One may ask “how do writers find ideas?”Often, an experience or a personal interest sparks an idea. In pre-writing you put down your ideas through some techniques. Which are the writer’s journal, free writing brainstorming, clustering, asking questions, reading and listening with focus, imagining, arranging ideas and the like. Pre-writing is a time to experiment, so your imaginations roam as far and wide as it will go.
Secondly, the first draft serves as the next stage of writing, after identifying a topic, purpose, audience and by organizing your information using pre-writing, it is now time to start writing. Some people write their first drafts quickly, just trying to get their ideas on paper. Pre-writing can also serves as a guide to writing your first draft. Start by writing freely, focusing on expressing your ideas clearly. As you write, new ideas come to mind; include the ideas in your draft. Don’t worry about spelling and grammar errors, you can correct them later.
Evaluating is the next stage of the writing approach as discussed in the book “ELEMENTS OF WRITING”. Evaluating is deciding on the strengths and weakness of your paper. You evaluate writing all the time, whether you think or not. There are two ways of evaluating your draft and these are self evaluation and peer evaluation. Self evaluation involves the individual alone and since you are so close to your own writing, evaluating it is harder than judging someone else’s work. But you could read carefully, by reading it more than once. You could also listen carefully, by reading aloud to yourself. Taking time by setting your draft aside, coming back to it later and reading through it would also aid in the self evaluation. Peer evaluation involves other parties such as your friends who would evaluate your writing. Most writers, even people who make a living by writing, have someone else read and evaluate their work. You can get advice from others by sharing your writing. Moreover, revising serves as one of the most important stage of this model. It is making the necessity to improve your paper. When you revise you make handwritten corrections on your paper, you then write or type a new copy. In revising you add new information, words, sentences, and sometimes a whole paragraph. You sometimes have to take out repeated or unnecessary information and unrelated ideas. Replacement is also use in revising to take out weak or awkward wording of details. In revising, you can reorder to move information, sentences and paragraphs for logical order.
The next stage on this model is proofreading. In proofreading, you carefully reread your paper. You correct your mistakes in grammar, spelling, capitalization and punctuation. In proofreading you focus on one line at a time and read slowly one word at a time. If you are not sure, what is correct, look it up. When proofreading, you could ask yourself the following questions. Is every sentence a complete sentence, not a fragment? Does every sentence begin with a capital letter and end with the correct punctuation mark? Do plural verbs have plural subjects? Do singular verbs have singular subjects? Are verbs in the right form? Are verbs in the right tense? Are adjectives and adverb forms used correctly in making comparisons? Does every pronoun agree with its antecedent (the word it refers to) in number and in gender? Are pronoun references clear? Are all words spelled correctly? Are the plural forms of nouns correct? All these questions would help you to have a good proofreading.
The final stage of this model as discussed by James L. Kinneavy and John E. Warriner in their book ELEMENTS OF WRITING is publishing. After working so hard through the earlier stages of the model, it is now time to publish or share your writing with others. Your finished product should be written in blue or black ink, type or you use a word processor.
In conclusion, using this model will help me in person to be very creative, imaginary, and critical and the like, when it comes to writing. It is because some techniques of some of the stages of the model open me to a greater opportunity of imagining a whole lot of ideas which can easily start writing.
WRITING SKILLS
DISCOURSE
Generally, a discourse is a discussion or conversation. More specifically, a mode of expression… originally verbal but now applied by analogy to other forms. In other words, discourse is not an absolute, but relative term which means “the language with which this particular group describes (evaluates, etc.)”. In discourse you can have your audience present or absent. The purpose, the audience, the topic influences the choice of discourse type. There are several types of discourse.
NARRATION
It is a technique which at its simplest means “telling back”. The purpose of narration is to tell a story or to narrate an event or series of events. It may exist in a variety of forms including biographies, short stories, novels and anecdotes. It is created in a constructive format (written, spoken, prose, poetry, images, song, theatre or dance) that describes a sequence of fiction or non fiction events. It is derived form the Latin verb “narrare”, which means to recount. The narrator must have a point to ensure smooth movement of the story. It should be paced to focus only on eventful periods and to ignore all inconsequential stretches in between. The point of view in a narration is the angle from which it is told. This angle may be personal and intimate or an omniscient in which the author is like a camera sweeping over the scene and pausing briefly to focus over the shoulders of selective character. Details are indispensable to narrative writing and can make the difference between boredom and delight in a reader.
MY EXAMPLE ON NARRATION
It was morning and like many girls, Dede was washing the dishes in a hurry so that she would not be late for school. She could no longer endure the pain of Mr. Appau’s cane. Mr. Appau always stood at the school gate with a big cane and whipped all latecomers saying “I’m training you so that you report to work early when you grow up”.
The Pyrex bowl slipped from Dede’s hands and broke into pieces…what’s that? Dede heard her mother’s voice loud and angry. Immediately, she knew the consequences. Before she could answer, her mother rained insults on her and fuming with anger her mother said "I’ll use your pocket money to buy a new one”. Dede dried her tears. Her mother’s harsh words re-echoed as she hurried to school. From a distance Dede could see Mr. Appau this time with a bigger cane. She was given six lashes. She starred at her palms; they were red and threatened to burst. She galloped to her classroom as tears coursed down her bony cheeks. She couldn’t copy any notes in class that day.
What seemed like eternity finally came. School closed and she hurried home. She had to go and sell pure water in her neighborhood as a normal routine. She didn’t like it because her mother spent the money she got from selling on alcohol or a new cloth for funeral. For her illiterate mother, the teachers should use her school fees to buy Dede’s exercise books. Dede carried the pure water. It was heavy but she had no choice.
She remembered one of her customers, Mr. Osei. On opening the gate of Mr. Osei, Dede saw him weeding in his garden. “You look beautiful today” he said and drew Dede, who smiled, putting the water under her feet. He touched her breasts and buttocks. Dede frowned and brushed his hands away with fear and anger.
He raised his cutlass and warned, “You better shut up or I’ll kill you with this”. Before Dede could muster courage to shout, he was on top of her, pulling down her pants while unzipping his trousers.
This is one of her numerous experiences since her childhood. She is now fifteen. She wonders if there exists a safe environment for a growing child like her.
DESCRIPTION
Writers of description want the reader to mentally see, hear, touch, taste and smell what they describe. Focus and concentration contribute more to a vivid description than either the size of the writer’s vocabulary or the heedless splattering of the page with adjectives. An objective description gives a factual, realistic picture of a subject without revealing your personal feelings about it. Subjective description creates a clear picture of the subject with details that also reveal your thoughts and feelings about it. As you describe your subject, look for different kinds of specific details i.e. both sensory, factual, realistic details. Your focus should be on a single dominant impression and constantly deliver it. The dominant impression of your description should be the heart of the person, place or scene you are attempting to describe.
DESCRIPTION OF HELL.
Hell is a dark channel and stinking prison, an abode of demons and lost souls, filled with fire and smoke. This prison is expressly designed by God to punish those who refuse to be bound by His Laws.
In earthly prisons, the poor prisoners have at least some freedom of movement, only within the four walls of his cell or in the gloomy yard of his prison. Not so in hell. The prisoners are heaped together in their awful prison, the walls of which are said to be four thousands miles thick.
The prisoners are not even able to remove from the eye a worm that gnaws it. All the filth of the world runs there. Our earthly fire again, no matter how fierce or widespread it may be, has always limited extent but the lake of fire in hell is boundless, shoreless and bottomless.
In hell all laws are overturned: there is no thought of family or country of ties or relationships. The prisoners in hell are helpless and hopeless; it is too late for them to repent.
DEFINITION
A definition explains the meaning of a term. It is where there is an explanation of a term, phenomenon in your discourse. It is normally, at the introduction of the discourse. There are two ways of presenting definition: The dictionary definition and personal definition. Definitions also depend on the purpose for writing. Precise definition are given to reduce hazy or vagueness of word. Explanatory definition attempts to disclose, explain, and illustrate an important aspect of a difficult concept. Stipulates definition introduces a new meaning to a familiar word. Rhetorical definition is normally philosophical. It is given to influence the behaviour and attitudes of readers. Here, the writer wants the reader to look at the definition in a certain direction not the mainstream.
DEFINITION OF A GENTLEMAN
A gentleman is one who never inflicts pain. The true gentleman carefully avoids whatever may cause a jolt in the minds of those with whom he associates. He has his eyes on all his company; he is tender towards the bashful, gentle towards the distant and merciful towards absurd. He guards against topics which may irritate him. He is too well employed to remember injuries and too laid-back to bear hatred. If he engages in controversy of any kind, his disciplined intellect preserves him from the blundering discourtesy.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
In comparison you emphasize on the resemblances and in contrast you emphasize on the differences. It can be two or several things, ideas, problems or events. There are two classical organizational patterns of a comparison or contrast discourse. One is block arrangement of ideas ; the other point by point or alternating arrangement of ideas. Supposed you are interested in showing the differences between vacationing in the mountains and vacationing at the beach.
Block arrangement (four paragraphs)
1. Introduction, in which you state your purpose which is to discuss the differences between vacationing in the mountains or at the beach.
2. Mountain 3. Beach 4. Conclusion
a. Climate a. climate
b. Types of activities b. types of activities
c. Location c. location
Point by point or alternating arrangement (5 paragraphs)
1. Introduction
2. Differences between mountains and beaches is climate
a. Mountains
b. Beach
3. Differences between mountains and beaches is the types of activities
a. Mountains
b. Beach
4. Differences between mountains and beaches is the location
a. Mountains
b. Beach
5. Conclusion.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. (CONSUMING FRESH FOODS INSTEAD OF CANNED FOOD)
Eating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where the variety of food is immense and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we are about to eat and how it will affect our bodied. The purpose of this writing is to compare and contrast eating fresh foods instead of canned foods. The three main differences are flavour, health benefit and cost.
The most notable difference between the two kinds of foods is their flavour. Fresh foods have great flavour and taste because they keep all their natural conditions. Canned foods however, lack a lot of its flavour characteristics because there are some other chemical products added to the natural foods. It is logical that the fresh foods will have a greater taste and flavour when consumed just because of the time in which they have been prepared.
Comparing both types of foods we notice another difference. There is a health factor that affects both of them when stored and also it has to be timed with much conservation and chemical factors that prolong the shelf life and apparent freshness of the food but could also become toxic if consumed often.
Yet another difference between these two types of foods is the cost. Canned foods are much more expensive than fresh food. Hence the benefit of buying canned foods is that they are easier to find. Example in a supermarket instead of selling fresh foods , they prefer canned foods which require less work to prepare (just open and serve) than fresh foods.
Here, the main three differences between buying fresh foods and buying canned foods. As we can see it comes down to a personal choice, based on the time each person has, the money and the importance he or she gives to his or her nutrition and health. Therefore it is important that you consider your possibilities and choose the best type of foods for your convenience and lifestyle.
EXEMPLIFICATION
It is very essential to support your generalizations with example. The use of examples in writing is necessary because language is ambiguous and circular. By giving an example the writer creates a context specifying more exactly what is meant by ‘a particular word’ and avoids the circularity inherent in language. In exemplification, you can introduce examples without the use of preratory transitions such as “my first example is” or “my second example is” instead a paragraph can be devoted to each era and aligns every example with the era to which it belongs. The example you cite must appropriately support your generalization. A writer needs to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience, decide on specific examples and arrange all the parts together when writing an exemplification essay. It means to provide examples about something. Writing an exemplification essay typically involves offering many examples to support generalization about something. In this type of writing examples act as supporting material to explain or clarify the generalization.
EXEMPLIFICATION (LIFE IN GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM “GIJ”)
Life on GIJ is so labourious.
One has to wake up early in the morning to get to school on time since the school does not provide housing facilities. On your way to school, you are caught up in traffic and you get to school extremely tired.
The first lecture starts at exactly 8:30 till 10:30, one is offered just ten minutes of break and then the second lecture starts at 10:40 till 12:40. Students force their way out through this lectures only to be piled with numerous assignment with short duration to submit. Some of the books for these assignments cannot be gotten from the school library and again one has to roam everywhere to look for books to accomplish the assignment.
During weekends that the student would rest, other lecturers schedule lecture, of which a serious student would not want to miss. A student in the Diploma class offers at least nine courses and is given only two weeks to write end of semester examination as if in BECE examination. Life on GIJ Campus is just like secondary school life, so tiresome and labourious.
REFERENCES
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://eslbee.com
http://eslbee.com/academy
A Collection of Readings for Writers Sixth Edition
The Springboard to the future October- December, 2008
Generally, a discourse is a discussion or conversation. More specifically, a mode of expression… originally verbal but now applied by analogy to other forms. In other words, discourse is not an absolute, but relative term which means “the language with which this particular group describes (evaluates, etc.)”. In discourse you can have your audience present or absent. The purpose, the audience, the topic influences the choice of discourse type. There are several types of discourse.
NARRATION
It is a technique which at its simplest means “telling back”. The purpose of narration is to tell a story or to narrate an event or series of events. It may exist in a variety of forms including biographies, short stories, novels and anecdotes. It is created in a constructive format (written, spoken, prose, poetry, images, song, theatre or dance) that describes a sequence of fiction or non fiction events. It is derived form the Latin verb “narrare”, which means to recount. The narrator must have a point to ensure smooth movement of the story. It should be paced to focus only on eventful periods and to ignore all inconsequential stretches in between. The point of view in a narration is the angle from which it is told. This angle may be personal and intimate or an omniscient in which the author is like a camera sweeping over the scene and pausing briefly to focus over the shoulders of selective character. Details are indispensable to narrative writing and can make the difference between boredom and delight in a reader.
MY EXAMPLE ON NARRATION
It was morning and like many girls, Dede was washing the dishes in a hurry so that she would not be late for school. She could no longer endure the pain of Mr. Appau’s cane. Mr. Appau always stood at the school gate with a big cane and whipped all latecomers saying “I’m training you so that you report to work early when you grow up”.
The Pyrex bowl slipped from Dede’s hands and broke into pieces…what’s that? Dede heard her mother’s voice loud and angry. Immediately, she knew the consequences. Before she could answer, her mother rained insults on her and fuming with anger her mother said "I’ll use your pocket money to buy a new one”. Dede dried her tears. Her mother’s harsh words re-echoed as she hurried to school. From a distance Dede could see Mr. Appau this time with a bigger cane. She was given six lashes. She starred at her palms; they were red and threatened to burst. She galloped to her classroom as tears coursed down her bony cheeks. She couldn’t copy any notes in class that day.
What seemed like eternity finally came. School closed and she hurried home. She had to go and sell pure water in her neighborhood as a normal routine. She didn’t like it because her mother spent the money she got from selling on alcohol or a new cloth for funeral. For her illiterate mother, the teachers should use her school fees to buy Dede’s exercise books. Dede carried the pure water. It was heavy but she had no choice.
She remembered one of her customers, Mr. Osei. On opening the gate of Mr. Osei, Dede saw him weeding in his garden. “You look beautiful today” he said and drew Dede, who smiled, putting the water under her feet. He touched her breasts and buttocks. Dede frowned and brushed his hands away with fear and anger.
He raised his cutlass and warned, “You better shut up or I’ll kill you with this”. Before Dede could muster courage to shout, he was on top of her, pulling down her pants while unzipping his trousers.
This is one of her numerous experiences since her childhood. She is now fifteen. She wonders if there exists a safe environment for a growing child like her.
DESCRIPTION
Writers of description want the reader to mentally see, hear, touch, taste and smell what they describe. Focus and concentration contribute more to a vivid description than either the size of the writer’s vocabulary or the heedless splattering of the page with adjectives. An objective description gives a factual, realistic picture of a subject without revealing your personal feelings about it. Subjective description creates a clear picture of the subject with details that also reveal your thoughts and feelings about it. As you describe your subject, look for different kinds of specific details i.e. both sensory, factual, realistic details. Your focus should be on a single dominant impression and constantly deliver it. The dominant impression of your description should be the heart of the person, place or scene you are attempting to describe.
DESCRIPTION OF HELL.
Hell is a dark channel and stinking prison, an abode of demons and lost souls, filled with fire and smoke. This prison is expressly designed by God to punish those who refuse to be bound by His Laws.
In earthly prisons, the poor prisoners have at least some freedom of movement, only within the four walls of his cell or in the gloomy yard of his prison. Not so in hell. The prisoners are heaped together in their awful prison, the walls of which are said to be four thousands miles thick.
The prisoners are not even able to remove from the eye a worm that gnaws it. All the filth of the world runs there. Our earthly fire again, no matter how fierce or widespread it may be, has always limited extent but the lake of fire in hell is boundless, shoreless and bottomless.
In hell all laws are overturned: there is no thought of family or country of ties or relationships. The prisoners in hell are helpless and hopeless; it is too late for them to repent.
DEFINITION
A definition explains the meaning of a term. It is where there is an explanation of a term, phenomenon in your discourse. It is normally, at the introduction of the discourse. There are two ways of presenting definition: The dictionary definition and personal definition. Definitions also depend on the purpose for writing. Precise definition are given to reduce hazy or vagueness of word. Explanatory definition attempts to disclose, explain, and illustrate an important aspect of a difficult concept. Stipulates definition introduces a new meaning to a familiar word. Rhetorical definition is normally philosophical. It is given to influence the behaviour and attitudes of readers. Here, the writer wants the reader to look at the definition in a certain direction not the mainstream.
DEFINITION OF A GENTLEMAN
A gentleman is one who never inflicts pain. The true gentleman carefully avoids whatever may cause a jolt in the minds of those with whom he associates. He has his eyes on all his company; he is tender towards the bashful, gentle towards the distant and merciful towards absurd. He guards against topics which may irritate him. He is too well employed to remember injuries and too laid-back to bear hatred. If he engages in controversy of any kind, his disciplined intellect preserves him from the blundering discourtesy.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
In comparison you emphasize on the resemblances and in contrast you emphasize on the differences. It can be two or several things, ideas, problems or events. There are two classical organizational patterns of a comparison or contrast discourse. One is block arrangement of ideas ; the other point by point or alternating arrangement of ideas. Supposed you are interested in showing the differences between vacationing in the mountains and vacationing at the beach.
Block arrangement (four paragraphs)
1. Introduction, in which you state your purpose which is to discuss the differences between vacationing in the mountains or at the beach.
2. Mountain 3. Beach 4. Conclusion
a. Climate a. climate
b. Types of activities b. types of activities
c. Location c. location
Point by point or alternating arrangement (5 paragraphs)
1. Introduction
2. Differences between mountains and beaches is climate
a. Mountains
b. Beach
3. Differences between mountains and beaches is the types of activities
a. Mountains
b. Beach
4. Differences between mountains and beaches is the location
a. Mountains
b. Beach
5. Conclusion.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. (CONSUMING FRESH FOODS INSTEAD OF CANNED FOOD)
Eating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where the variety of food is immense and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we are about to eat and how it will affect our bodied. The purpose of this writing is to compare and contrast eating fresh foods instead of canned foods. The three main differences are flavour, health benefit and cost.
The most notable difference between the two kinds of foods is their flavour. Fresh foods have great flavour and taste because they keep all their natural conditions. Canned foods however, lack a lot of its flavour characteristics because there are some other chemical products added to the natural foods. It is logical that the fresh foods will have a greater taste and flavour when consumed just because of the time in which they have been prepared.
Comparing both types of foods we notice another difference. There is a health factor that affects both of them when stored and also it has to be timed with much conservation and chemical factors that prolong the shelf life and apparent freshness of the food but could also become toxic if consumed often.
Yet another difference between these two types of foods is the cost. Canned foods are much more expensive than fresh food. Hence the benefit of buying canned foods is that they are easier to find. Example in a supermarket instead of selling fresh foods , they prefer canned foods which require less work to prepare (just open and serve) than fresh foods.
Here, the main three differences between buying fresh foods and buying canned foods. As we can see it comes down to a personal choice, based on the time each person has, the money and the importance he or she gives to his or her nutrition and health. Therefore it is important that you consider your possibilities and choose the best type of foods for your convenience and lifestyle.
EXEMPLIFICATION
It is very essential to support your generalizations with example. The use of examples in writing is necessary because language is ambiguous and circular. By giving an example the writer creates a context specifying more exactly what is meant by ‘a particular word’ and avoids the circularity inherent in language. In exemplification, you can introduce examples without the use of preratory transitions such as “my first example is” or “my second example is” instead a paragraph can be devoted to each era and aligns every example with the era to which it belongs. The example you cite must appropriately support your generalization. A writer needs to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience, decide on specific examples and arrange all the parts together when writing an exemplification essay. It means to provide examples about something. Writing an exemplification essay typically involves offering many examples to support generalization about something. In this type of writing examples act as supporting material to explain or clarify the generalization.
EXEMPLIFICATION (LIFE IN GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM “GIJ”)
Life on GIJ is so labourious.
One has to wake up early in the morning to get to school on time since the school does not provide housing facilities. On your way to school, you are caught up in traffic and you get to school extremely tired.
The first lecture starts at exactly 8:30 till 10:30, one is offered just ten minutes of break and then the second lecture starts at 10:40 till 12:40. Students force their way out through this lectures only to be piled with numerous assignment with short duration to submit. Some of the books for these assignments cannot be gotten from the school library and again one has to roam everywhere to look for books to accomplish the assignment.
During weekends that the student would rest, other lecturers schedule lecture, of which a serious student would not want to miss. A student in the Diploma class offers at least nine courses and is given only two weeks to write end of semester examination as if in BECE examination. Life on GIJ Campus is just like secondary school life, so tiresome and labourious.
REFERENCES
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://eslbee.com
http://eslbee.com/academy
A Collection of Readings for Writers Sixth Edition
The Springboard to the future October- December, 2008
Tuesday, October 13, 2009
Three Definitions of Knowledge Society
The term Knowledge Society refers to any society that believes that knowledge is more powerful and important than money.
SOURCE: http://www.thenational.com.pg/?q=node/1252
A knowledge society is one which places an explicit and principal value on knowledge as means to achieve economic and social well being.
SOURCE:http://www. Eclac.cl/socinto/noticias/noticias/6/26546/ictpol06/pdf
Knowledge society refers to any society where knowledge is the primary production resource instead of capital and labour.
SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA
SOURCE: http://www.thenational.com.pg/?q=node/1252
A knowledge society is one which places an explicit and principal value on knowledge as means to achieve economic and social well being.
SOURCE:http://www. Eclac.cl/socinto/noticias/noticias/6/26546/ictpol06/pdf
Knowledge society refers to any society where knowledge is the primary production resource instead of capital and labour.
SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA
Monday, October 12, 2009
ASHAIMAN POLYCLINIC RECORDS HIGH RATE OF MALNUTRITION
The health promotion officer and health educationist at the Ashaiman poly clinic Mrs. Martha Lamptey has disclosed the alarming situation of malnutrition in the Ashaiman community.
According to her, cases recorded for malnutrition especially among children is threatening. She hinted that one thousand one hundred ad ninety five (1,195) under zero to eleven (0-11) months, two hundred and seventy seven (277) under twelve to twenty three (12-23) months and thirty six (36) under twenty for to fifty nine (24-59) months children have been recorded just within half of the year for malnutrition with one hundred and seventy five (175) cases for severe malnutrition.
Mrs. Lamptey disclosed this in an exclusive interview with Sena news.
Mrs. Lamptey however intimated that malnutrition is the mis-distribution of nutrients in the body, adding that, it is not only under nutrition but also over nutrition (obesity). Outlining the causes of this alarming situation to Sena news, she noted that inadequate knowledge about food, poverty, poor personal hygiene and traditional beliefs and taboos are contributing factors to the problem.
She has therefore called on the Mills administration to come to the aid of Ashaiman Community and organize health programme to advice parents especially mothers to pay attention to the well being of their wards.
Report by: Regina Asamoah.
According to her, cases recorded for malnutrition especially among children is threatening. She hinted that one thousand one hundred ad ninety five (1,195) under zero to eleven (0-11) months, two hundred and seventy seven (277) under twelve to twenty three (12-23) months and thirty six (36) under twenty for to fifty nine (24-59) months children have been recorded just within half of the year for malnutrition with one hundred and seventy five (175) cases for severe malnutrition.
Mrs. Lamptey disclosed this in an exclusive interview with Sena news.
Mrs. Lamptey however intimated that malnutrition is the mis-distribution of nutrients in the body, adding that, it is not only under nutrition but also over nutrition (obesity). Outlining the causes of this alarming situation to Sena news, she noted that inadequate knowledge about food, poverty, poor personal hygiene and traditional beliefs and taboos are contributing factors to the problem.
She has therefore called on the Mills administration to come to the aid of Ashaiman Community and organize health programme to advice parents especially mothers to pay attention to the well being of their wards.
Report by: Regina Asamoah.
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