INSIGHT INTO CASTELL’S DEFINITION ON INFORMATION SOCIETY
Do we live in an era of change or in a changing era? As society changes, the old name becomes non-operational. Agricultural society gave way to industrial society, which was followed by Post Industrial society, a name given by Daniel Bell of Harvard University and Alain Touraine of France almost at the same time (incidentally both of them are sociologists.). Agriculture is the main mode of production, employing the vast majority of the people in an agricultural society. In an industrial society, industrial activities dominate the economy. In a Post Industrial society, the majority of the population is employed neither in agriculture nor in the industrial sector but instead are pushers of papers. The service sector, or the tertiary sector, becomes predominant in this stage. This is a phase that Alvin Toffler called ‘the third wave”.
In recent years, a new name has been invented for the Post- Industrial society: is it Information Society or Knowledge Society. In today’s world there seems to be an oversupply of information. Most of the information we have is not useful. The other side of information society is where we have a lot information on what is going on , but not enough on what can be done or ought to be done, and much less on how to do it. We lack a moral compass to navigate through the tickets of information. In this society one has the right to information. There is abundance of creation of information. These societies value information and have created infrastructures for the collection, processing and dissemination of information. For example: I can find out by a flick of my computer mouse, the number of road accidents in America.
In this past decade, the expression “information society” has without a doubt been confirmed as the hegemonic term, not because it necessarily expresses a theoretical clarity, but rather due to its “baptism” by the official policies of the more developed countries and the “crowning” that meant having a World Summit dedicated in its honor.
The term’s antecedents, however, date back from previous decades. In 1973, United States sociologist Daniel Bell introduced the notion “information society” in his book The Coming of Post-Industrial Society [1], where he formulates that the main axis of this society will be theoretical knowledge and warns that knowledge-based services will be transformed into the central structure of the new economy and of an information-led society, where ideologies will end up being superfluous.
This expression reappears strongly in the 90s, within the context of the development of the World Wide Web and ICTs. As of 1995, it was included in the agenda of the G7 meetings (followed by G8, which joins heads of State and governments from the most powerful nations on the planet). It has been addressed in forums of the European Community and the OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (the thirty most developed countries in the World), and has been adopted by the United States government, as well as various UN agencies and the World Bank Group. All with great repercussions in the communication media. As of 1998, the term was first selected by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and then by the UN, as the name for the World Summit to be held in 2003 and 2005.
Within this context, the concept “information society” as a political and ideological construct has developed under the direction of neo-liberal globalization, whose main goal has been to accelerate the establishment of an open and “self-regulated” world market. This policy has counted on the close collaboration of multilateral organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank, in order for the weak countries to abandon national regulations or protectionist measures that “would discourage” the inversion; all with the known result of a scandalous widening of the gaps between the rich and the poor in the World.
Regardless of this reality and the key role that communication technologies have played in the acceleration of economic globalization, information society’s public image is more associated with the “friendlier” aspects of globalization, such as the World Wide Web, mobile and international phoning, TV via satellite, etc. Thus, the information society has assumed the role of the “good will ambassador” for globalization, whose “benefits” could be within the reach of all, if only the “digital divide” could be bridged.
Manuel Castells is a Professor of Sociology and Planning and Chair of the Center for Western European Studies at the University of California. He on the other hand has clearly define the information society. This definition is what I would like to discuss, taking into consideration, the key elements in the definition.
A term put forward by Castells (1993 1-2) to describe a society built on technologies of information storage, retrieval, and transmission, time-space compression, Post-Fordism, flexible accumulation, and the advance of finance capital, which is characterized by networking, globalization, and the flexibility, individuality, and instability of work.
1. Technology
Technology is the process by which humans modify nature to meet their needs and wants. Most people, however, think of technology in terms of its artifacts: computers and soft ware, air craft, pesticides , water treatment plants, birth-control pills and micro wave ovens to name a few. But technology is more than these tangible products. Technology in information communication refers to the rapid development of information. Think of ICT as the productive factor for the society that depends on information. Technology is the back bone of an information society. All the key points in Castell’s definition depends o technology. It can be seen as objects- tools, machines, instruments, weapons, and appliances-the physical devices of technical performance. As a knowledge: the know how behind technological innovations. As a process – begins with a need and ends with a solution. As socio- technical systems: the manufacture and use of objects involving people and other objects in combination. Change in the material environment is the explicit purpose of technology and not, as is the case with science. As time progress, so does technology. Technology has made things much simple for humans, and also added new ways for us to communicate.
2. Information storage.
What is information and how can it be stored? Information refers to data that has been assigned a meaning. Beer (1985 p. 28) describes information as “that which changes us”- data becomes information when it can be acted upon. In so far as information can be considered in the abstract, it is always linked to specific situation and has only limited validity (Vander Spek & Spijkervet, 1997). In an information society, information becomes a commodity which must be created. After creation, the commodity must be kept until it is needed. Therefore, information storage refers to the way information is stored, retrieved and displayed. People who store information can make money. Example: Library, Archives, Wikipedia, Google, Yahoo.
3. Retrieval
The process of getting something back. The process of getting back information stored on a computer. In an information society, information retrieval is key. That is, after creating and storing, it is able to get back or retrieve the information when needed.
4. Transmission
The act or process of passing something from one place, person, thing to another. It talks about distribution. Technology has made transmission so easy. In such a society, distribution of information is a means in itself. Distribution is a money making means or machine in an information society.
5. Time space compression
Time has been a big problem in the social and economic/ cultural environment. With the evolvement of technology it has compressed time, space and distant. Spatial meanings are changed by electronic communications. In Castells definition, he proposes that technology with its instantaneous processing of financial transactions and the speeding up of actions takes us into an era of timeless time. Time- space compression is evident when you look at human communication in the ancient days as compared to recent days.
6. Post Fordism
It is the name given to the dominant system of economic production, consumption and associated socio-economic phenomena, in most industrialized countries since the late 20th century. Definitions of the nature and scope of post fordism vary considerably and a matter of debate among shoulders. Post fordism is characterized by the following attributes
• New information technologies
• Small batch production
• Economies of scope
• Specialized products and jobs
• Emphasis on types of consumers in contrast to previous emphasis on social class
• The rise of the service and the white collar worker
• Feminization of the work force.
Post Fordism can be applied in a wider context to describe a whole system of modern social processes because Post Fordism describes the world as it is today. It brought new ways of looking at consumption and production.
7. Flexible Accumulation / Finance Capital
Those who create information and for a matter of fact in the information society the creators easily accumulates capital. For example the creators of Microsoft still accumulate wealth. This is what happens in an information society. There is a widespread trend toward capital mobility. The process is linked to the emergence of global cities increasingly more, connected to each other then the immediate regional environment (Sassen 1991) Lamberton identifies one important strand of the process, noting that information creates economies of scale in a way that allows the rich to get richer. According to him, it pays business planning large scale operations to buy better information than smaller firms (lamberton 2002 p. 337)
8. Net working
It is key in an information society. The networking that Castells identifies occurs at a number of levels and for a range of different purposes. What they appear to have in common is that they provide a structure that is both temporary an flexible enabling organisations to work together and co- operate when it benefits them but not constraining them after their usefulness has passed. Networking was integral to the development of technology. However, the development of productive and powerful global networks does have implication for individuals, communities and countries throughout the world. There are countries that are at the core of these network, notably in north America, Europe and far east, while others in Asia and south and central America fulfill supportive roles based on their cheaper labour costs. For those who are included within the network society, work patterns are changing. As technology has made it possible for large corporations to shift and distribute their production around the world.
9. Globalization.
Describes an ongoing process by which regional economies, societies and cultures have become integrated through a globe – spanning network of communication and exchange. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to economic globalization: integration of national economies in to the international economy through trade, foreign direct investments, capital flows, migration and the spread of technology. However, globalization is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic, technological, socio cultural, political, and biological factors.
CRITIQUES OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY.
As with any zeitgeist there is a criticism. Two of the most notable critique has been Frank Webster’s Survey of theories of the Information Society (Webster 2002) and Christopher May’s (2000). Aside this critique there is a disadvantage of an information society that cannot be overlooked. It has brought global and local digital divide. Globally, there has been a divide. Some countries are at the core of networking whiles other lags behind. Also, whiles some countries have experienced information society, some countries have not started experiencing it. Locally, there has been a digital divide between the citizens of a country. This divide exists locally due to several factors such as age, urban –rural settings, gender, education and so on.
Age
According to experts, age is a problem in the information society. At the initial stages of information society, some age classes were excluded and this has been the problem. However, the digital gap is now narrowing but in our local market it is a a big problem.
Urban – rural setting
The urban setting (cities, towns) are exposed greatly to ICT as compared to the rural setting(villages).NB: you cannot have an information society without ICT.
Gender (male and female) it has been researched that women are late adapters to technology and as such are affected by the digital divide. But an information society does not seek to bring disparity but equality. However, technology is male dominated.
Education
Literacy and illiteracy. Those who are literate are able to get access to ICT. Even with the literate there are ICT illiterate and all this is due to the rapid development of ICT.
Monday, July 12, 2010
PSYCHOLOGY
WHAT IS PERCEPTION?
A communicator like the psychologist has the cause to believe and understand people reasonably well. The communicator or journalist communicate with people and as such must understand human behaviour. This raises the question of ‘what is psychology? According to Ellen Pastorino and Susann Doyle-Portillo in their book ‘WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY’ defines psychology “as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. From the definition above some key elements such as behaviour and mental processes is key. These elements relates to humans or society, in other words people. To ensure a better understanding one has to take a look at social psychology. Social psychology is the discipline that studies how we think about, influence and relate to other people. (James S. Nairne, PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition). In social psychology there are several concepts which include attitude, discrimination, perception, prejudice, stereotypes. For the purpose of this assignment, perception as a concept of social psychology would be discussed.
The word perception comes from the Latin words perceptio, percipio and means “receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind senses. Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. In philosophy, psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. Basically, perception according to Oxford Learners Dictionary is ‘an idea, a belief or an image you have as a result of how you see or understand something’. Also in PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition, James S. Nairne defines perception as ‘the collection of processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of those sensations’. Forming perceptions is to make sense of the world, knowing where one thing ends and another begins.
The study of perception gives rise to the Gestalt school of psychology which observes that when we perceive something, properties emerge from a whole configuration that is not found in any particular component. The philosophy of perception concerns how mental processes and symbols depend on the world internal and external to the perceiver. Our perception of the external world begins with the senses, which lead us to generate empirical concepts representing the work around us, within a mental framework relating new concepts the world so its study may be important for better understanding communication, self, ID, Ego even reality
The processes of perception routinely alter what humans see. When people view something with a preconceived concept about it, they tend to take those concepts and see them whether or not they are there. When objects are viewed without understanding, the mind will try to reach for something that already recognizes, in order to process what it is viewing. That which most closely relates and the unfamiliar from our past experiences, makes up what we see when we look at things that we do not comprehend.
Perception is a requisite property of animate action without perception action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless. But the question is Do our perceptions allow us to experience the world as it really is?’’ Can we ever know another point of view in the way we know our own? We can categorize perception as internal or external. Internal perception tells us what’s going on in our bodies. External or sensory perception tells about the world outside our bodies. However, the philosophy of perception is mainly concerned with external perception and the word is used in that sense everywhere.
Perceptions vary from person to person. Situations one found him or herself can create a perception. Different people perceive different things about the same situation but more than that, we assign different meanings to what we perceive and the meanings might change it a certain person. Our perception of ourselves in relation to the rest of the world plays an important role in our choices, behaviours and beliefs. We do not simply see ‘what’s ‘out there’ in the physical world, our perceptions are also influenced by our expectations of what will find. When you encounter to person for the first time, your initial impressions are influenced by physical factors- attractiveness, facial expression, skin color, and clothing and by our meaningful interpretations of those physical attributes. Another influence on our perceptions of other people can be explained by the theory of correspondent inferences. This occurs when we infer that the actions and behaviours of others correspond to other intentions and personalities.
Cultural groups can reflect such obvious characteristics as shared ethnicity, race or socioeconomic class but may also be based on political, religious, professional or other factors. The perception of beauty has subjective components that are culturally dependent. If you see a sloppily dressed, unshaven man weaving down the street you’re likely to form a negative first impression partly because past experiences have taught you to avoid people who fit this description. Not all people rely on physical appearance to the same extent (Livingstone, 2001) and cultural background is important too-some cultures do not rely on attractiveness as much as others (Wheeler & King 1997). If the approaching person appears attractive and well kept at least you know he or she follows some of the accepted standards and norms of culture.
Research shows that in many situations person’s pe4rceptions can be accurate but sometimes it can be inaccurate (perceptual errors). Perceptual errors caused by misapplied expectations can lead us to think we have seen or heard things those we simply and did not. There is ample evidence that expectations can strongly influence our perception of events as well as our memory for what we have seen, as in eyewitness testimony (Allport & Postman, 1947/1965; Loftus & Palmer, 1974).
In conclusion, as a communicator my aim is to deepen the social and psychological assumptions that informs and shape the public opinions and tend to get a better combination between the news, the public and the media, as such my understanding about perception and its formation would enable me achieve this aim. Knowing about perception would enable me not to be quick to form images about the individual and not be bias in my reportage. I also have the responsibility as a communicator to interpret the meaning of my reports, findings, research and thereby give a causal explanation of the way I get my findings and the effects which it produces. The meaning should be thought of somehow objectively true. Understanding perception would enhance my choice of words as a communicator because according to Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe “No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they misunderstood others”. Hence, it would guide me to be writing denotatively other than connotatively. Also, knowing that perception can lead to discrimination, I would ensure I do not fall by discriminating in my reportage and as realize that my interactions with people function to serve a goal or fulfill a need.
A communicator like the psychologist has the cause to believe and understand people reasonably well. The communicator or journalist communicate with people and as such must understand human behaviour. This raises the question of ‘what is psychology? According to Ellen Pastorino and Susann Doyle-Portillo in their book ‘WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY’ defines psychology “as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes”. From the definition above some key elements such as behaviour and mental processes is key. These elements relates to humans or society, in other words people. To ensure a better understanding one has to take a look at social psychology. Social psychology is the discipline that studies how we think about, influence and relate to other people. (James S. Nairne, PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition). In social psychology there are several concepts which include attitude, discrimination, perception, prejudice, stereotypes. For the purpose of this assignment, perception as a concept of social psychology would be discussed.
The word perception comes from the Latin words perceptio, percipio and means “receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind senses. Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. In philosophy, psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. Basically, perception according to Oxford Learners Dictionary is ‘an idea, a belief or an image you have as a result of how you see or understand something’. Also in PSYCHOLOGY, 4th edition, James S. Nairne defines perception as ‘the collection of processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of those sensations’. Forming perceptions is to make sense of the world, knowing where one thing ends and another begins.
The study of perception gives rise to the Gestalt school of psychology which observes that when we perceive something, properties emerge from a whole configuration that is not found in any particular component. The philosophy of perception concerns how mental processes and symbols depend on the world internal and external to the perceiver. Our perception of the external world begins with the senses, which lead us to generate empirical concepts representing the work around us, within a mental framework relating new concepts the world so its study may be important for better understanding communication, self, ID, Ego even reality
The processes of perception routinely alter what humans see. When people view something with a preconceived concept about it, they tend to take those concepts and see them whether or not they are there. When objects are viewed without understanding, the mind will try to reach for something that already recognizes, in order to process what it is viewing. That which most closely relates and the unfamiliar from our past experiences, makes up what we see when we look at things that we do not comprehend.
Perception is a requisite property of animate action without perception action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless. But the question is Do our perceptions allow us to experience the world as it really is?’’ Can we ever know another point of view in the way we know our own? We can categorize perception as internal or external. Internal perception tells us what’s going on in our bodies. External or sensory perception tells about the world outside our bodies. However, the philosophy of perception is mainly concerned with external perception and the word is used in that sense everywhere.
Perceptions vary from person to person. Situations one found him or herself can create a perception. Different people perceive different things about the same situation but more than that, we assign different meanings to what we perceive and the meanings might change it a certain person. Our perception of ourselves in relation to the rest of the world plays an important role in our choices, behaviours and beliefs. We do not simply see ‘what’s ‘out there’ in the physical world, our perceptions are also influenced by our expectations of what will find. When you encounter to person for the first time, your initial impressions are influenced by physical factors- attractiveness, facial expression, skin color, and clothing and by our meaningful interpretations of those physical attributes. Another influence on our perceptions of other people can be explained by the theory of correspondent inferences. This occurs when we infer that the actions and behaviours of others correspond to other intentions and personalities.
Cultural groups can reflect such obvious characteristics as shared ethnicity, race or socioeconomic class but may also be based on political, religious, professional or other factors. The perception of beauty has subjective components that are culturally dependent. If you see a sloppily dressed, unshaven man weaving down the street you’re likely to form a negative first impression partly because past experiences have taught you to avoid people who fit this description. Not all people rely on physical appearance to the same extent (Livingstone, 2001) and cultural background is important too-some cultures do not rely on attractiveness as much as others (Wheeler & King 1997). If the approaching person appears attractive and well kept at least you know he or she follows some of the accepted standards and norms of culture.
Research shows that in many situations person’s pe4rceptions can be accurate but sometimes it can be inaccurate (perceptual errors). Perceptual errors caused by misapplied expectations can lead us to think we have seen or heard things those we simply and did not. There is ample evidence that expectations can strongly influence our perception of events as well as our memory for what we have seen, as in eyewitness testimony (Allport & Postman, 1947/1965; Loftus & Palmer, 1974).
In conclusion, as a communicator my aim is to deepen the social and psychological assumptions that informs and shape the public opinions and tend to get a better combination between the news, the public and the media, as such my understanding about perception and its formation would enable me achieve this aim. Knowing about perception would enable me not to be quick to form images about the individual and not be bias in my reportage. I also have the responsibility as a communicator to interpret the meaning of my reports, findings, research and thereby give a causal explanation of the way I get my findings and the effects which it produces. The meaning should be thought of somehow objectively true. Understanding perception would enhance my choice of words as a communicator because according to Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe “No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they misunderstood others”. Hence, it would guide me to be writing denotatively other than connotatively. Also, knowing that perception can lead to discrimination, I would ensure I do not fall by discriminating in my reportage and as realize that my interactions with people function to serve a goal or fulfill a need.
PRESS LAW
LAW TERMS
1. CONSIDERATION
Paying something (valuable in the eyes of the receiver, not necessarily all) for an offer. It usually comes in contract (offer and acceptance). An inducement for something promised.
2. INDEMNITY
It is undertaken not to hold someone responsible for an act or a deed. Some sought of guarantee given to someone not to be responsible for the consequences of any actions (indemnify another). Example: when Emma gives Yaw information about a situation. Emma can tell Yaw to indemnify him. That is, not to hold him (Emma) responsible for any consequences that may result form that piece of information.
3. ACQUITAL
When you are left free in a court of law especially in criminal matters (discharge from court)
4. ACCUSATORIAL PROCEEDINGS
There are two types of handling cases (proceedings)
• Accusatorial (English system)
It is a procedure in the court of law in which it is the duty of a party which is allergen (in criminal cases) to produce that evidence. He who alleges must prove. Example: if you say I have stolen, you have to prove I have stolen.
• Inquisitorial (French system)
The procedure in which the accused would have to prove that he or she is not guilt. Example: if you say I have stolen, I have to prove I have or have not stolen
5. ADJOURNMENT
To the layman, it is postponement. When a matter in court is set for another day for parties to appear, the matter is said to be adjourned.
6. ALIBI
A plea of not being present when a crime was committed. When you plead alibi the case (proceeding) would have to stop for investigation.
7. ASSAULT
An act of unlawfully touching somebody intentionally or recklessly, normally accompanied with battery (violent assault).
8. AUDI ALTERAM PATERM
Audi – to hear Alteram – alternative, alter
To hear or listen to the other side, that is, no man should be condemned unheard. He who shall decide anything without the other side having been heard, although may have said what is right, will not have done what is right).
9. BIGAMY
1. Being married under ordinance and going into another marriage whiles the initial marriage is existing.
2. When you know someone is married and you allow the person to marry you. You can be charge for bigamy
10. CERTIORARI
A prerogative writ or order to which a superior court quashes or cancels a lower court’s orders given without it (lower court) jurisdiction. This order can also bring them (lower court) back within the limits assigned by law, whenever there has been a failure, or absence or express of jurisdiction.
11. CAVEAT
A warning to a person not to do something until the matter is gone into (investigated) in respect to estate matters. It is a form of injunction.
12. CONTEMPT OF COURT.
When you do anything against the orders of the court or you do anything to prevent justice from being carried out.
13. INTESTATE
When one dies without a will
14. PRECEDENT
An official action, judgment or decision of a court of law that happened in the past and that is seen as or an example or rule to be followed in a similar situation later. Example: when someone steals and is punished for a year. If there is a similar case in the future, that same or exceeding punishment would be meted out to the person.
15. INTENT
Intention, the purpose, mind with which something is done.
16. EQUITY
Equality, fairness. He who comes for equity must come with clean hands.
17. MISDEMEANOUR
A minor offense, example: when someone slaps another person. Misdemeanor is the smallest among the offenses. It normally goes with a fine or caution or both. However, if you kill someone it is a first degree felony.
18. CONVEYANCE
The transfer of one thing form one person to another, the thing or document is a conveyance. An instrument which passes a freehold interest in real property or an interest in real property or an instrument that transfers property from one person to another
19. DE FACTO
Something existing as a matter of fact, example: it is a fact that Ghana has a president.
20. DE JURE
Something existing as a matter of right or with full backing of a legal authority or lawful authority. Example: right to life
21. ADULTERY
Being married and sleeping (having sex) with any other person apart form the one whom you have married.
22. RAPE
Having sexual intercourse with a woman above sixteen years without her consent
23. CARNAL KNWOLEDGE
Having sex the missionary way
• Inflagrantedilicto
Seeing the people having sex as it happens (live)
24. AUTREFOIS ACQUIT
When someone pleads autrefois acquit, it means he or she had already been acquitted on a stated offense and as such could not be tried on that same offense.
25. BRUTUM FULMEN
An empty threat
26. HABEAS CORPUS
An order to bring a body, it is used when someone has been unlawfully detained
27. ACTUS REUS
A guilty or bad intention
1. CONSIDERATION
Paying something (valuable in the eyes of the receiver, not necessarily all) for an offer. It usually comes in contract (offer and acceptance). An inducement for something promised.
2. INDEMNITY
It is undertaken not to hold someone responsible for an act or a deed. Some sought of guarantee given to someone not to be responsible for the consequences of any actions (indemnify another). Example: when Emma gives Yaw information about a situation. Emma can tell Yaw to indemnify him. That is, not to hold him (Emma) responsible for any consequences that may result form that piece of information.
3. ACQUITAL
When you are left free in a court of law especially in criminal matters (discharge from court)
4. ACCUSATORIAL PROCEEDINGS
There are two types of handling cases (proceedings)
• Accusatorial (English system)
It is a procedure in the court of law in which it is the duty of a party which is allergen (in criminal cases) to produce that evidence. He who alleges must prove. Example: if you say I have stolen, you have to prove I have stolen.
• Inquisitorial (French system)
The procedure in which the accused would have to prove that he or she is not guilt. Example: if you say I have stolen, I have to prove I have or have not stolen
5. ADJOURNMENT
To the layman, it is postponement. When a matter in court is set for another day for parties to appear, the matter is said to be adjourned.
6. ALIBI
A plea of not being present when a crime was committed. When you plead alibi the case (proceeding) would have to stop for investigation.
7. ASSAULT
An act of unlawfully touching somebody intentionally or recklessly, normally accompanied with battery (violent assault).
8. AUDI ALTERAM PATERM
Audi – to hear Alteram – alternative, alter
To hear or listen to the other side, that is, no man should be condemned unheard. He who shall decide anything without the other side having been heard, although may have said what is right, will not have done what is right).
9. BIGAMY
1. Being married under ordinance and going into another marriage whiles the initial marriage is existing.
2. When you know someone is married and you allow the person to marry you. You can be charge for bigamy
10. CERTIORARI
A prerogative writ or order to which a superior court quashes or cancels a lower court’s orders given without it (lower court) jurisdiction. This order can also bring them (lower court) back within the limits assigned by law, whenever there has been a failure, or absence or express of jurisdiction.
11. CAVEAT
A warning to a person not to do something until the matter is gone into (investigated) in respect to estate matters. It is a form of injunction.
12. CONTEMPT OF COURT.
When you do anything against the orders of the court or you do anything to prevent justice from being carried out.
13. INTESTATE
When one dies without a will
14. PRECEDENT
An official action, judgment or decision of a court of law that happened in the past and that is seen as or an example or rule to be followed in a similar situation later. Example: when someone steals and is punished for a year. If there is a similar case in the future, that same or exceeding punishment would be meted out to the person.
15. INTENT
Intention, the purpose, mind with which something is done.
16. EQUITY
Equality, fairness. He who comes for equity must come with clean hands.
17. MISDEMEANOUR
A minor offense, example: when someone slaps another person. Misdemeanor is the smallest among the offenses. It normally goes with a fine or caution or both. However, if you kill someone it is a first degree felony.
18. CONVEYANCE
The transfer of one thing form one person to another, the thing or document is a conveyance. An instrument which passes a freehold interest in real property or an interest in real property or an instrument that transfers property from one person to another
19. DE FACTO
Something existing as a matter of fact, example: it is a fact that Ghana has a president.
20. DE JURE
Something existing as a matter of right or with full backing of a legal authority or lawful authority. Example: right to life
21. ADULTERY
Being married and sleeping (having sex) with any other person apart form the one whom you have married.
22. RAPE
Having sexual intercourse with a woman above sixteen years without her consent
23. CARNAL KNWOLEDGE
Having sex the missionary way
• Inflagrantedilicto
Seeing the people having sex as it happens (live)
24. AUTREFOIS ACQUIT
When someone pleads autrefois acquit, it means he or she had already been acquitted on a stated offense and as such could not be tried on that same offense.
25. BRUTUM FULMEN
An empty threat
26. HABEAS CORPUS
An order to bring a body, it is used when someone has been unlawfully detained
27. ACTUS REUS
A guilty or bad intention
PRINT JOURNALISM
PREPARE A FOUR PARAGRAPH NEWS STORY ON THE INTER-FACULTY LECTURE.
Ghana’s response to global corporate social responsibility has been slow and limited. This has been attributed to weak mechanisms for improving corporate social responsibility of organizations to society.
The acting rector of the Ghana institute of journalism Mr. Kweku Rockson said this when he was delivering an inter- faculty lecture at the institute on the topic “how responsible Ghana has been to the Global Corporate Social Responsibility (CRS) imperative?” He said “the ranking process for the Ghana Club 100 shows a distribution size of 20%, profitability 25%... and social responsibility only 10%”.
He therefore called on organizations to undertake ‘CRS advocacy’, engage in capacity building activities and take into cognizance the needs of society.
To him, this is the surest way of balancing corporate power with responsibility and enhancing the livelihood of people within their catchment area.
Ghana’s response to global corporate social responsibility has been slow and limited. This has been attributed to weak mechanisms for improving corporate social responsibility of organizations to society.
The acting rector of the Ghana institute of journalism Mr. Kweku Rockson said this when he was delivering an inter- faculty lecture at the institute on the topic “how responsible Ghana has been to the Global Corporate Social Responsibility (CRS) imperative?” He said “the ranking process for the Ghana Club 100 shows a distribution size of 20%, profitability 25%... and social responsibility only 10%”.
He therefore called on organizations to undertake ‘CRS advocacy’, engage in capacity building activities and take into cognizance the needs of society.
To him, this is the surest way of balancing corporate power with responsibility and enhancing the livelihood of people within their catchment area.
MASS COMMUNICATION
COMPARE AND CONTRAST LIBERTARIAN THEORY AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
Normative theory is any theory which seeks to explain or predict what would happen under theoretical constraints; what ought to be done. (Susan Mayhew, a Dictionary of Geography 2004) There are four main theories under the normative theory which were propounded by Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Peterson. These theories (Libertarian, Social Responsibility, Soviet Communist and Authoritarian) involve ideal views of how journalism or media ought to be or are expected to be. These theories were in attempt to clarify the connection between the media and political society in the modern world. It is essential to examine these theories (social responsibility and libertarian theories) noting their obvious similarities and differences. However in order to properly determine the relationship between the two and their association to the press, in-depth examination proves essential.
Libertarian theory marks a break from authoritarian system of society in that no longer was the truth unattainable by common men. No longer did knowledge itself need to be handed down from a high authority from which both understanding and truth traditionally acquired. From these origins of the rejection of authority came the ideas that formed the postulate of libertarian theory. It is a political theory that holds the rights of the individual above all other considerations and seeks to minimize the power of the state to the safeguarding of these rights. (http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorysocial responsibility)
Social Responsibility theory, on the other hand is an outgrowth of libertarian theory. It is an ethical theory that an entity whether it is government, corporation, organization or individual has a responsibility to society. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). It asserts that the press is always a reflection of the social and political configuration within which it operates.
Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories are the basis upon which the free press should and does run in a democratic society. It is therefore important to examine their similarities and differences.
The two theories explained earlier assert that the press must allow the individuals to have ‘the free market place for ideas’. Meaning, the media serves to provide a ‘forum’ in which people can exchange ideas, and through such Socratic dialogue, can arrive at the truth. It must also provide a market place for ideas where all ideas of men should be included. For as John Stuart Mill wrote ‘to suppress any idea, no matter how unlikely it may be, would mean that one is potentially suppressing the truth. Even if it is not the truth, suppressing objections could hinder in the possibility of actually, attaining or maintaining the strength of the truth. The media in Ghana try to provide a free market place for ideas by seeking viewers, listeners, readers, audience comments on a particular topic broadcast or published in the mass media. Phone in sections of programmes are all in attempt to provide a free market place for ideas. Despite the similarities between these two theories, the Social Responsibility theory critiques the Libertarian theory for discarding its role to serve free market place in the face of its own economic ends, submitting to businesses, allowing conditions necessary for advertisers to control or influence editorial principles , trampling on the notion of free objective reporting.
Moreover, both theories talk of how the press should operate/function in a particular political structure. This means, both theories emphasizes on the media’s structure (the political and economic system in which the media operates) and its performance (how the media carry out their roles /functions in the given political and economic system). In relation to the functions/ performance of the press both theories sees the function of the press as entertainment, educational tool, a check on government or watchdog role and maintaining self-sufficiency via advertising sales to be free from external demand. However, the Social Responsible theorists’ criticize the Libertarian interpretation in this regard due to the fact the media in Libertarian society trends to put emphasis on economics over educational and information value. The press in Ghana for example in a way emphasizes on economic ends thereby allowing more advertisements to run within programmes which should carry educative and informative messages. For instance, a programme like ‘Adult Education’ is broadcast air and there is numerous advertisements of alcohol beverages within such a programme which should carry educative and informative messages.
Also, Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories have an assumption regarding the nature of man. These theories abandon the ideas of coveting knowledge as in authoritarian system and instead accept scientific and Socratic method to arrive at the truth that is attainable by rational man. The difference here is that, the Libertarian theory sees man as being capable of distinguishing between truth and falsehood, between good and evil (John Milton, John Locke, Saint Simone) whereas in Social Responsibility theory man is seen as passive and indolent, unwilling to use his reason instead choosing acceptance of that which he is told. As such there is a necessity for those who have awareness (the press) to spur him into utilizing his reason. Although the Social Responsibility theory sees man as reluctant participant in seeking knowledge and truth, it concedes to the objectives stated in the libertarian theory but does not hesitate to point out the ineffectiveness of self- righting process. That is why the media in Social Responsibility theory brings out programmes that spur the reasons of man. The media (Ghana) for instance organizes programmes such as Mentor, Dance Fever, Gang Star, Bands Alive, Stars of the Future, MTN Project Fame and so on. All these programmes are geared towards spurring up man’s senses.
In addition, the idea of freedom is propagated by both theories. The freedom the press should have in performing it functions in a country. In the Libertarian theory, it asserts that no other entity takes precedence over the individual. This idea was shaped by Locke who made the assertion that: ‘the government is a privilege institution whose guardianship and authority of state power could be removed if and when the people extracted their support.’ This is also evident in the mind of John Stuart Mill ‘the only instance in which state restrictions on an individual could be tolerated is if that person was harming another, or has the concept of negative freedom’. The Social Responsibility theory on the other hand supports the idea of freedom of the press but in a different direction. It asserts that the press should be free but work within a self principled responsibility.
The Social Responsibility theory began to bring to the fore front the issue of moral responsibility of the press, which one will encounter nowhere when looking at the Libertarian theory. The press in the Libertarian theory was seen as endangering public morals and also paid more attention to superficial and sensations in its coverage of current happenings.
In conclusion, both theories including the other two theories (Authoritarian and Soviet Communist) have been criticized a lot. Among these criticisms were:
They fail to recognize other prevailing political systems like the Scandinavian model.
They fail to recognize media systems in the third world countries (developing countries).
Too idealistic (strong belief in perfect standards).
They fail to recognize changes in societies and political thinking over time.
References
• Susan Mayhew, A Dictionary of Geography 2004, originally published by Oxford University Press 2004.
• Research Machines plc 2009, http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorySocialresponsibility.
• Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• A criticism of Social Responsibility Theory an Ethical Perspective. Journal article by Scott Lloyd; Journal of Mass Media Ethics Vol. 6, 1991
• McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, Denis McQuail, fifth edition.
Normative theory is any theory which seeks to explain or predict what would happen under theoretical constraints; what ought to be done. (Susan Mayhew, a Dictionary of Geography 2004) There are four main theories under the normative theory which were propounded by Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Peterson. These theories (Libertarian, Social Responsibility, Soviet Communist and Authoritarian) involve ideal views of how journalism or media ought to be or are expected to be. These theories were in attempt to clarify the connection between the media and political society in the modern world. It is essential to examine these theories (social responsibility and libertarian theories) noting their obvious similarities and differences. However in order to properly determine the relationship between the two and their association to the press, in-depth examination proves essential.
Libertarian theory marks a break from authoritarian system of society in that no longer was the truth unattainable by common men. No longer did knowledge itself need to be handed down from a high authority from which both understanding and truth traditionally acquired. From these origins of the rejection of authority came the ideas that formed the postulate of libertarian theory. It is a political theory that holds the rights of the individual above all other considerations and seeks to minimize the power of the state to the safeguarding of these rights. (http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorysocial responsibility)
Social Responsibility theory, on the other hand is an outgrowth of libertarian theory. It is an ethical theory that an entity whether it is government, corporation, organization or individual has a responsibility to society. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). It asserts that the press is always a reflection of the social and political configuration within which it operates.
Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories are the basis upon which the free press should and does run in a democratic society. It is therefore important to examine their similarities and differences.
The two theories explained earlier assert that the press must allow the individuals to have ‘the free market place for ideas’. Meaning, the media serves to provide a ‘forum’ in which people can exchange ideas, and through such Socratic dialogue, can arrive at the truth. It must also provide a market place for ideas where all ideas of men should be included. For as John Stuart Mill wrote ‘to suppress any idea, no matter how unlikely it may be, would mean that one is potentially suppressing the truth. Even if it is not the truth, suppressing objections could hinder in the possibility of actually, attaining or maintaining the strength of the truth. The media in Ghana try to provide a free market place for ideas by seeking viewers, listeners, readers, audience comments on a particular topic broadcast or published in the mass media. Phone in sections of programmes are all in attempt to provide a free market place for ideas. Despite the similarities between these two theories, the Social Responsibility theory critiques the Libertarian theory for discarding its role to serve free market place in the face of its own economic ends, submitting to businesses, allowing conditions necessary for advertisers to control or influence editorial principles , trampling on the notion of free objective reporting.
Moreover, both theories talk of how the press should operate/function in a particular political structure. This means, both theories emphasizes on the media’s structure (the political and economic system in which the media operates) and its performance (how the media carry out their roles /functions in the given political and economic system). In relation to the functions/ performance of the press both theories sees the function of the press as entertainment, educational tool, a check on government or watchdog role and maintaining self-sufficiency via advertising sales to be free from external demand. However, the Social Responsible theorists’ criticize the Libertarian interpretation in this regard due to the fact the media in Libertarian society trends to put emphasis on economics over educational and information value. The press in Ghana for example in a way emphasizes on economic ends thereby allowing more advertisements to run within programmes which should carry educative and informative messages. For instance, a programme like ‘Adult Education’ is broadcast air and there is numerous advertisements of alcohol beverages within such a programme which should carry educative and informative messages.
Also, Libertarian and Social Responsibility theories have an assumption regarding the nature of man. These theories abandon the ideas of coveting knowledge as in authoritarian system and instead accept scientific and Socratic method to arrive at the truth that is attainable by rational man. The difference here is that, the Libertarian theory sees man as being capable of distinguishing between truth and falsehood, between good and evil (John Milton, John Locke, Saint Simone) whereas in Social Responsibility theory man is seen as passive and indolent, unwilling to use his reason instead choosing acceptance of that which he is told. As such there is a necessity for those who have awareness (the press) to spur him into utilizing his reason. Although the Social Responsibility theory sees man as reluctant participant in seeking knowledge and truth, it concedes to the objectives stated in the libertarian theory but does not hesitate to point out the ineffectiveness of self- righting process. That is why the media in Social Responsibility theory brings out programmes that spur the reasons of man. The media (Ghana) for instance organizes programmes such as Mentor, Dance Fever, Gang Star, Bands Alive, Stars of the Future, MTN Project Fame and so on. All these programmes are geared towards spurring up man’s senses.
In addition, the idea of freedom is propagated by both theories. The freedom the press should have in performing it functions in a country. In the Libertarian theory, it asserts that no other entity takes precedence over the individual. This idea was shaped by Locke who made the assertion that: ‘the government is a privilege institution whose guardianship and authority of state power could be removed if and when the people extracted their support.’ This is also evident in the mind of John Stuart Mill ‘the only instance in which state restrictions on an individual could be tolerated is if that person was harming another, or has the concept of negative freedom’. The Social Responsibility theory on the other hand supports the idea of freedom of the press but in a different direction. It asserts that the press should be free but work within a self principled responsibility.
The Social Responsibility theory began to bring to the fore front the issue of moral responsibility of the press, which one will encounter nowhere when looking at the Libertarian theory. The press in the Libertarian theory was seen as endangering public morals and also paid more attention to superficial and sensations in its coverage of current happenings.
In conclusion, both theories including the other two theories (Authoritarian and Soviet Communist) have been criticized a lot. Among these criticisms were:
They fail to recognize other prevailing political systems like the Scandinavian model.
They fail to recognize media systems in the third world countries (developing countries).
Too idealistic (strong belief in perfect standards).
They fail to recognize changes in societies and political thinking over time.
References
• Susan Mayhew, A Dictionary of Geography 2004, originally published by Oxford University Press 2004.
• Research Machines plc 2009, http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/libertarian+theorySocialresponsibility.
• Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• A criticism of Social Responsibility Theory an Ethical Perspective. Journal article by Scott Lloyd; Journal of Mass Media Ethics Vol. 6, 1991
• McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, Denis McQuail, fifth edition.
BROADCAST JOURNALISM
TELEVISION AND RADIO WHICH IS MORE POWERFUL IN RELATION TO COVERAGE AND PRODUCTION.
Radio and television (TV) are both means of transmitting information to people. Radio is a process of sending and receiving messages through the air using electromagnetic waves. Television on the other hand is a piece of electrical equipment with a screen and which you can watch programmes with moving pictures and sound (OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER’S DICTIONARY). As to which is more powerful (being able to control and influence people or events) in terms of coverage and production I would say RADIO.
Radio as compared to television has a wider coverage area. In Ghana, statistics (GHANA PRESS, MEDIA, TV, RADIO, NEWSPAPER BASIC DATA) shows that number of television sets per 1000 is 87.00, number of TV sets is 1,730,000 and number of TV stations is 11 as compared to radio. Number of radio receivers per 1000 is 221.2, number of radio receivers is 4,400,000 and number of radio stations is 21. The differences in the figures affirm the wider coverage of radio. Moreover, in Ghana most radio stations are able to transmit radio signals even to the northern side of the country unlike most TV stations which are limited to certain regions. Also, radio can be found everywhere, in cars, on phones and so on unlike TV.
Television is known to be audio-visual while radio is audio. This undisputed fact does not necessarily make TV more powerful over radio in terms of production. Production in radio is less difficult as compared to TV and such people are willing to go into radio production. For instance, in the production of news. A radio station would need a presenter, some technicians to operate the machines and a compelling message. The presenter “talk” the script since (S) he is communicating to the ‘ears’ of the listeners. It helps the listeners to be imaginative. Base on this, radio is the fastest medium to communicate information, TV stations are one minute late to communicate information especially live programmes. Unlike television that you would need presenters, camera men, lightening, technicians, make-up beauticians, background settings, even costume of the presenters. This makes TV production more difficult and less powerful.
The powerfulness of radio is seen in its ability to impact or influence majority of the people. Radio stations are able to carry out a lot of productions within a day as compared to television. The more productions (in relation to programmes) the more powerful you become since you influence a lot of people through the medium.
It is well known that television has the ability to capture the complete attention of people; it uses pictures, words, sounds and music to emotionally move and motivate people into action. These features of television, truly makes it powerful but not as radio since it has impact or influences not the majority of the people.
In conclusion, I would attest to the fact that television has exceptional features as explained above but radio is very powerful in terms of coverage and production.
Radio and television (TV) are both means of transmitting information to people. Radio is a process of sending and receiving messages through the air using electromagnetic waves. Television on the other hand is a piece of electrical equipment with a screen and which you can watch programmes with moving pictures and sound (OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER’S DICTIONARY). As to which is more powerful (being able to control and influence people or events) in terms of coverage and production I would say RADIO.
Radio as compared to television has a wider coverage area. In Ghana, statistics (GHANA PRESS, MEDIA, TV, RADIO, NEWSPAPER BASIC DATA) shows that number of television sets per 1000 is 87.00, number of TV sets is 1,730,000 and number of TV stations is 11 as compared to radio. Number of radio receivers per 1000 is 221.2, number of radio receivers is 4,400,000 and number of radio stations is 21. The differences in the figures affirm the wider coverage of radio. Moreover, in Ghana most radio stations are able to transmit radio signals even to the northern side of the country unlike most TV stations which are limited to certain regions. Also, radio can be found everywhere, in cars, on phones and so on unlike TV.
Television is known to be audio-visual while radio is audio. This undisputed fact does not necessarily make TV more powerful over radio in terms of production. Production in radio is less difficult as compared to TV and such people are willing to go into radio production. For instance, in the production of news. A radio station would need a presenter, some technicians to operate the machines and a compelling message. The presenter “talk” the script since (S) he is communicating to the ‘ears’ of the listeners. It helps the listeners to be imaginative. Base on this, radio is the fastest medium to communicate information, TV stations are one minute late to communicate information especially live programmes. Unlike television that you would need presenters, camera men, lightening, technicians, make-up beauticians, background settings, even costume of the presenters. This makes TV production more difficult and less powerful.
The powerfulness of radio is seen in its ability to impact or influence majority of the people. Radio stations are able to carry out a lot of productions within a day as compared to television. The more productions (in relation to programmes) the more powerful you become since you influence a lot of people through the medium.
It is well known that television has the ability to capture the complete attention of people; it uses pictures, words, sounds and music to emotionally move and motivate people into action. These features of television, truly makes it powerful but not as radio since it has impact or influences not the majority of the people.
In conclusion, I would attest to the fact that television has exceptional features as explained above but radio is very powerful in terms of coverage and production.
ADVERTISING
DESCRIBE ANY ADVERT OF YOUR CHOICE AND DICUSS THE ELEMENT OF THE MARKETING MIX.
E-ZWICH ADVERTISEMENT
In a television advert for the e-zwich smart card, a husband question his wife whether she could go about her tasks as planned for the day. She assures him of the ease and comfort she would get from her new e-zwich smart card .She goes all out and within a short period, she is able to take care of all her transactions and she is able to transfer money to her daughter, who later calls to confirm she has received the money. Her mother becomes happy and then talks of how convenient the e-zwich smart card is and of it security, as it uses only the fingerprint of the user. She again talks of its affordability, thus it is free and available at all banks across the country. E-zwich, easy banking for everyone.
PRODUCT; the product in question is the e-zwich smart card, as it is the service being advertised.
PRICE; It is indicated in the advert that the e-zwich smart card is free.
PLACE; the e-zwich smart card is available at all banks says the advert.
PROMOTION; the advertisement is under the promotion in the marketing mix and in the whole it was good. It related well to the marketing mix.
PROCESS; there is a clear indication in the advert that the process is very fast, since within a short period the woman was able to finish all her transactions and even able to transfer money to her daughter at school, who later confirmed of receiving the money.
E-ZWICH ADVERTISEMENT
In a television advert for the e-zwich smart card, a husband question his wife whether she could go about her tasks as planned for the day. She assures him of the ease and comfort she would get from her new e-zwich smart card .She goes all out and within a short period, she is able to take care of all her transactions and she is able to transfer money to her daughter, who later calls to confirm she has received the money. Her mother becomes happy and then talks of how convenient the e-zwich smart card is and of it security, as it uses only the fingerprint of the user. She again talks of its affordability, thus it is free and available at all banks across the country. E-zwich, easy banking for everyone.
PRODUCT; the product in question is the e-zwich smart card, as it is the service being advertised.
PRICE; It is indicated in the advert that the e-zwich smart card is free.
PLACE; the e-zwich smart card is available at all banks says the advert.
PROMOTION; the advertisement is under the promotion in the marketing mix and in the whole it was good. It related well to the marketing mix.
PROCESS; there is a clear indication in the advert that the process is very fast, since within a short period the woman was able to finish all her transactions and even able to transfer money to her daughter at school, who later confirmed of receiving the money.
PHILOSOPHY
HOW CAN ONE IDENTIFY WITH A STATE?
A state is a means of rule over a defined or “sovereign” territory. Identity in a layman’s view is whatever makes something the same or different but in philosophy, identity (sameness) is whatever makes an entity definable and recognizable; in terms of possessing a set of qualities that distinguish it form other entities of different group. In identifying oneself with the state there are some factors to note.
Firstly, when an individual contributes to the state. When an individuals pays taxes, levies, engages in community work, share ideas, write articles to be published (S) he feels part of the state since(s) he contributes to the development of the state.
Secondly, when one feels the state cares for his well – being. Individuals in a state contribute in several ways to the development of the state and as such expect the state to care for his or her well – being. Naturally, one does not benefit from his or her contribution (S) he does not even want to be associated with that institution. For instance when one contributes or registers for National Health Insurance and is not given adequate attention when (s) he is sick then there is the probability that the person would not want to even make such contributions or payment again.
Thirdly, through citizenship an individual can identify him or herself with the state. For instance, the 1992 constitution of Ghana outlines how an individual can identify him or herself with the state(Ghana). In Chapter Three Article 6,7,8,9,10 provides means (in summary) such as naturalization, birth , honorary gesture, adoption, descent, foundling, marriage and registration to which one can identify itself to the state.
Finally, one can identify him or herself to the state when one contributes to the state, when one feels the state cares his or her well being and through citizenship.
A state is a means of rule over a defined or “sovereign” territory. Identity in a layman’s view is whatever makes something the same or different but in philosophy, identity (sameness) is whatever makes an entity definable and recognizable; in terms of possessing a set of qualities that distinguish it form other entities of different group. In identifying oneself with the state there are some factors to note.
Firstly, when an individual contributes to the state. When an individuals pays taxes, levies, engages in community work, share ideas, write articles to be published (S) he feels part of the state since(s) he contributes to the development of the state.
Secondly, when one feels the state cares for his well – being. Individuals in a state contribute in several ways to the development of the state and as such expect the state to care for his or her well – being. Naturally, one does not benefit from his or her contribution (S) he does not even want to be associated with that institution. For instance when one contributes or registers for National Health Insurance and is not given adequate attention when (s) he is sick then there is the probability that the person would not want to even make such contributions or payment again.
Thirdly, through citizenship an individual can identify him or herself with the state. For instance, the 1992 constitution of Ghana outlines how an individual can identify him or herself with the state(Ghana). In Chapter Three Article 6,7,8,9,10 provides means (in summary) such as naturalization, birth , honorary gesture, adoption, descent, foundling, marriage and registration to which one can identify itself to the state.
Finally, one can identify him or herself to the state when one contributes to the state, when one feels the state cares his or her well being and through citizenship.
PRINT JOURNALISM
THE ELEMENTS OR QUALITIES OF NEWS FROM THREE DIFFERENT BOOKS, AUTHORS AND PUBLISHERS.
TITLE OF BOOK : JOURNALISM TODAY, FOURTH EDITION
AUTHOR : DONALD L. FERGUSON AND JIM PATTEN
PUBLISHER : NATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
THE ELEMENTS OF NEWS
1. TIMELESS
Timeless relates to the newness of the facts. A news paper should concentrate on advance items, stories, about coming events.
2. PROXIMITY
It talks of the nearness of a given event to your place of publications.
3. PROMINENCE
Prominence refers to the “newsworthiness” of an individual. This explains why the press follows movie stars, governors etc.
4. CONSEQUENCE
It refers to the importance of an event.
5. HUMAN INTEREST
Human interest stories cause readers to laugh or cry, to feel emotion.
6. CONFLICT
Conflict involves tension, surprise and suspense.
7. OTHER FACTORS
Progress, money, disaster, novelty, oddity, emotions, drama, animals and children are other elements of news.
TITLE OF BOOK: NEWS WRITING, THIRD EDITION
AUTHOR : GEORGE A. HOUGH 3RD
PUBLISHER : HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
THE ELEMENTS OF NEWS
1. TIMELESS
News is always a timely matter.
2. PROXIMITY
The nearness of the source of information.
3. PROMINENCE
People are more interested in major events and prominent people, than in trivial occurrences and ordinary people.
4. HUMAN INTEREST
People are fascinated by other people and much of the news you read in the newspaper and the like is built around that interests.
5. RARITY
Rare event is more interesting and exciting than something that happens everyday.
TITLE OF BOOK : BASIC MEDIA WRITNG ,FIFTH EDITION
AUTHOR : MELVIN MENCHER
PUBLISHER : BROWN AND BENCHMARK
THE QUALITIES OF NEWS
1. IMPACT
The more people affected; the more important the story. One way to judge impact is to figure out what the results or consequences of a news story might be.
2. THE UNUSUAL
An interruption of life’s routine makes news.
3. PROMINENCE
Names make news. People who are widely known or who have positions of authority are said to prominent.
TITLE OF BOOK : JOURNALISM TODAY, FOURTH EDITION
AUTHOR : DONALD L. FERGUSON AND JIM PATTEN
PUBLISHER : NATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
THE ELEMENTS OF NEWS
1. TIMELESS
Timeless relates to the newness of the facts. A news paper should concentrate on advance items, stories, about coming events.
2. PROXIMITY
It talks of the nearness of a given event to your place of publications.
3. PROMINENCE
Prominence refers to the “newsworthiness” of an individual. This explains why the press follows movie stars, governors etc.
4. CONSEQUENCE
It refers to the importance of an event.
5. HUMAN INTEREST
Human interest stories cause readers to laugh or cry, to feel emotion.
6. CONFLICT
Conflict involves tension, surprise and suspense.
7. OTHER FACTORS
Progress, money, disaster, novelty, oddity, emotions, drama, animals and children are other elements of news.
TITLE OF BOOK: NEWS WRITING, THIRD EDITION
AUTHOR : GEORGE A. HOUGH 3RD
PUBLISHER : HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
THE ELEMENTS OF NEWS
1. TIMELESS
News is always a timely matter.
2. PROXIMITY
The nearness of the source of information.
3. PROMINENCE
People are more interested in major events and prominent people, than in trivial occurrences and ordinary people.
4. HUMAN INTEREST
People are fascinated by other people and much of the news you read in the newspaper and the like is built around that interests.
5. RARITY
Rare event is more interesting and exciting than something that happens everyday.
TITLE OF BOOK : BASIC MEDIA WRITNG ,FIFTH EDITION
AUTHOR : MELVIN MENCHER
PUBLISHER : BROWN AND BENCHMARK
THE QUALITIES OF NEWS
1. IMPACT
The more people affected; the more important the story. One way to judge impact is to figure out what the results or consequences of a news story might be.
2. THE UNUSUAL
An interruption of life’s routine makes news.
3. PROMINENCE
Names make news. People who are widely known or who have positions of authority are said to prominent.
PRINT JOURNALISM
SIX DEFINITIONS OF NEWS, FROM DIFFERENT TITLE OF BOOKS, AUTHORS AND PUBLISHERS.
1. Charles A. Dana, editor of the New York Sun, defines news as “anything that will make people talk”.
Title of Book: NEWS WRITING, THIRD EDITION.
Author: GEORGE A. HOUGH 3RD.
Publisher: HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY.
2. News is whatever is going to affect people. It is about change, imminent or actual.
Title of Book: HOW TO HANDLE MEDIA INTERVIEWS.
Author: ANDREW BOYD.
Publisher: MERCURY BOOKS.
3. News is defined as timely information of interest to many people, usually concerning events that have just occurred or are about to occur.
Title of Book: JOURNALISM.
Author: NORMAN B.MOYES.
Publisher: GINN AND COMPANY.
4. News is information people need to make sound decisions about their lives.
Title o0f Book: NEWS REPORTING AND WRITING, FIFTH EDITION.
Author: MELVIN MENCHER.
Publisher: Wm. C. BROWN PUBLISHERS.
5. News; new information that interests and affects people.
Title of Book: THE WORK OF THE TELEVISION JOURNALIST.
Author: ROBERT TYRRELL.
Publisher: FOCAL PRESS.
6. News can be defined as “(1) The significant, or (2) the sentimental - anything that affects or interests.
Title of Book: AN ETHICS OF NEWS.
Author: WESLEY G. PIPPERT.
Publisher: GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY PREES.
TWO DEFINITIONS OF JOURNALISM, FROM DIFFERENT TITLE OF BOOKS, AUTHORS AND PUBLISHERS.
1. The collecting, writing, editing and dissemination of news material is called journalism.
Title of Book: JOURNALISM.
Author: NORMAN B. MOYES.
Publisher: GINN AND COMPANY.
2. Journalism as “the trade, technique or profession or reporting news for public by various means”.
Title of Book: NEWS WRITING THIRD EDITION.
Author: GEORGE A. HOUGH 3RD.
Publisher: HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY.
1. Charles A. Dana, editor of the New York Sun, defines news as “anything that will make people talk”.
Title of Book: NEWS WRITING, THIRD EDITION.
Author: GEORGE A. HOUGH 3RD.
Publisher: HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY.
2. News is whatever is going to affect people. It is about change, imminent or actual.
Title of Book: HOW TO HANDLE MEDIA INTERVIEWS.
Author: ANDREW BOYD.
Publisher: MERCURY BOOKS.
3. News is defined as timely information of interest to many people, usually concerning events that have just occurred or are about to occur.
Title of Book: JOURNALISM.
Author: NORMAN B.MOYES.
Publisher: GINN AND COMPANY.
4. News is information people need to make sound decisions about their lives.
Title o0f Book: NEWS REPORTING AND WRITING, FIFTH EDITION.
Author: MELVIN MENCHER.
Publisher: Wm. C. BROWN PUBLISHERS.
5. News; new information that interests and affects people.
Title of Book: THE WORK OF THE TELEVISION JOURNALIST.
Author: ROBERT TYRRELL.
Publisher: FOCAL PRESS.
6. News can be defined as “(1) The significant, or (2) the sentimental - anything that affects or interests.
Title of Book: AN ETHICS OF NEWS.
Author: WESLEY G. PIPPERT.
Publisher: GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY PREES.
TWO DEFINITIONS OF JOURNALISM, FROM DIFFERENT TITLE OF BOOKS, AUTHORS AND PUBLISHERS.
1. The collecting, writing, editing and dissemination of news material is called journalism.
Title of Book: JOURNALISM.
Author: NORMAN B. MOYES.
Publisher: GINN AND COMPANY.
2. Journalism as “the trade, technique or profession or reporting news for public by various means”.
Title of Book: NEWS WRITING THIRD EDITION.
Author: GEORGE A. HOUGH 3RD.
Publisher: HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY.
PRINT JOURNALSM
THE WRONG USE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AMONG JOURNALIST
When a doctor’s negligence kills his patient it is no news but when a journalist misuses English it is news.
This was disclosed in an interview with the president of the Ghana Journalist Association’s and news editor of the Daily Graphic, Mr. Ransfold Tetteh. He outlined the level of education, lack of reading and use of pidgin language as the main cause of wrong use of English Language.
He suggested that, the proper use of our mother language is an effective tool, in correcting the use of English Language. He however noted that, even in the midst of wrong use of English Language among journalist, there are very good journalist.
When a doctor’s negligence kills his patient it is no news but when a journalist misuses English it is news.
This was disclosed in an interview with the president of the Ghana Journalist Association’s and news editor of the Daily Graphic, Mr. Ransfold Tetteh. He outlined the level of education, lack of reading and use of pidgin language as the main cause of wrong use of English Language.
He suggested that, the proper use of our mother language is an effective tool, in correcting the use of English Language. He however noted that, even in the midst of wrong use of English Language among journalist, there are very good journalist.
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH METHODS
A) WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC STUDY?
George A. Lundberg defines science as “a technique of deriving reliable knowledge about any type of phenomenon in the universe and then applying this derived knowledge for purposes of prediction and control”. Science derived from the Latin origin “scientia” which means knowledge acquired through a study. When a study or a process is set towards science then it could be labeled as a scientific study. Roger D. Winner and Joseph R. Dominick in their book Mass Media Research 5th edition, kerlinger (1986) defines scientific research as “a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among observed phenomena”. Tom K.B Kumekpor in his book Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research defines scientific study as “the general term describing the spirit and method of all science.” These basically refer to certain distinctive rules of a procedure and mental framework within which any work of scientific nature may be carried out. It includes the steps through which such an exercise must pass, the rules of procedures, the mental and intellectual framework within which such work should be carried out.
There are four basic characteristics of scientific study. Any study or research process which does not possess these characteristics cannot be viewed as scientific study. The first characteristic of communication research is empiricism. This means that communication research is based on observation. Researchers must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to reject metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. Empiricism also talks of the predictive and objective nature of communication research. It is also predictive, in the sense that it relates the present to the future. Communication research is objective since it tries to rule out peculiarities of judgment by researchers. Objectivity also requires that communication research deals with facts rather than interpretations.
Secondly, scientific study is theoretical. This means that communication research attempts to summarize difficult observation and intangible logical related preposition which implies to explain casual relations in the subject matter.
Moreover, scientific study is systematic and cumulative in nature. Cumulative in that theories are build upon one another with new theories approving, broadening, and challenging the odd ones. It goes through a laid down procedures and each stage builds the knowledge acquired from the immediate stages. “No single research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself”.
Lastly, scientific study is non-ethical. This is to say that social scientist do not ask whether a particular social actions are good or bad. They simply seek to explain the social actions.
Notwithstanding all these characteristics of scientific study or research, it approaches learning as a series of small steps. That is one study or one source provides only an indication of what may or may not be true. The “truth” is found only through a series of objective analysis. Scientific study or method is self correcting, in that changes in thought or theory are appropriate when errors in previous research are uncovered.
Scientific study is therefore concerned with
• Observation (collection of data)
• Classification of data collected ( group or ungroup)
• Organization of data (charts, tables or maps)
• Measurements of data (precise units, level of measurement, nominal , ordinal, intervals and ratios)
• Hypothesis (testable statements about observed phenomenon or expected outcome)
• Analyses, interpretation and summary of data ( diagnosis through the use of techniques such as mode, mean, median and quartels)
• Predictions ( possible outcome, result or prognosis)
To sum it all up, any research or knowledge acquired which does not go through the scientific method of inquiry and does not possess the characteristics of a scientific study cannot be labeled as such.
(B) HOW DOES IT DIFFER FROM MYTHOLOGY
Scientific study and mythology are all categories of knowledge but both knowledge’s are differently built in terms of definition, characteristics and structure (mode of appearance).
Scientific study as defined by Tom K.B Kumekpor (2002) in his book Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research implies “the particular procedures and logic, systematically and rigorously applied to the observation, collection, classification, analysis and interpretation of empirical data”. Mythology on the other hand refers to knowledge that is concerned with personal belief, experience or perception. A clear distinction is even created in both definitions.
Secondly, in terms of characteristics scientific study is concerned with empiricism, theoretical, cumulative and non-ethical. All these characteristics of scientific study subject it to fortification and verification. This is well explained in the statement made by Nunnally (1994) “a key principle of science is that, any statement or fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by another scientist”. Mythology, on the other hand is morally based, filled with personal values and therefore lacks fortification and verification. It is usually subjected to individual or personal judgment or value.
Thirdly, scientific study follows laid down procedures – observation, classification, organization, measurement, hypothesis, analysis/interpretation/summary and predictions. In the case of mythology, it does not follow any laid down procedures.
In conclusion, it could be noticed that although both scientific study and mythology are knowledge based, they differ in the sense of definition, characteristics and structure.
BRIEFLY EXPLAIN THE RATIONALE FOR COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science that adapts systematic approach in solving social phenomenon. Research involves procedures which normally go through a kind of process that ensures that the scientific method is utilized. There are seven inter- related activities involved in the procedures.
• Generating a research problem.
• Constructing hypothesis.
• Establishing research objectives.
• Identifying research methodology.
• Methods of data collection
• Analysis of data
• Formulation of empirical generalization
Though each research study has it own specific purpose the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and not yet discovered. The specific purpose of research could be identified in the following broad areas.
Exploratory or formulatory research
In exploratory research the purpose is to gain familiarity with the phenomenon, to minimize the mistakes and bias in the process of answering questions and to move beyond ideal curiosity into formulating questions.
Descriptive research.
The purpose of descriptive research is to portray precisely the uniqueness of a particular individual, situation or a group or to create a link among otherwise desperate sources of information. It also seeks to communicate effectively ideas either by written or spoken to other people.
Diagnostic research
Diagnostic research seeks to test competing interpretations of events against one another, so that a best account of the same phenomenon can be isolated.
Testing research (hypothesis)
The main rationale behind testing research is to test a hypothesis of an underlying relationship between variables and also to use qualitative and quantitative skills to solve problems.
The above points clearly state the rationale behind every communication research.
(A) IS THERE ANY CORRELATION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE
To some extent there is a high degree of correlation between science and knowledge. Good and Hatt define science as “an accumulation of systematic knowledge.” Radcliffe Brown also defines science as a body of knowledge existing at a certain moment of the time”. George A. Lundberg defines science as “a technique of deriving reliable knowledge about any type of phenomena in the universe and then applying this derived knowledge for purposes of prediction and control.” The basic element common to all three definitions is knowledge. Knowledge according to Longman dictionary is “the fact or condition of knowing somebody or something through experience or association”. In other words “an acquaintance with, understanding or awareness of something.”
Science derived from a Latin origin “scientia” which means “knowledge acquired through a study”. Science is about knowledge, without knowledge there is no science. Knowledge is the basis of all science. If there is no knowledge then science would not exist.
Also, when there is knowledge about a particular phenomenon, a problem can then be generated. When this problem is generated, it then goes through the process of science (scientific method). So, without the initial knowledge about that phenomenon, issue of science would not be identified.
The four types of science that is physical, formal, meteorological and social are all generated based on knowledge. It could be noticed that, every aspect of science is base on knowledge. Knowledge is what makes science.
Finally, there is some extent of correlation between science and knowledge since knowledge is the basis of all sciences.
(B) EXPLAIN THE SIGNIFICANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Scientific communication research is an aspect of social science which adapt a systematic approach in solving social problems. The essence of scientific communication research is that it is based on the scientific method of enquiry. Successful scientific communication research result from clear mind attacking a clearly stated problem and producing clearly stated conclusions.
The main essence of scientific Communication Research is to discover new facts. Using the new facts, there is confirmation, revision, or rejection of existing theory and accepted practices. Scientific Communication Research therefore analyzes the result of studious inquiry into a problem that might nave arisen out of a felt need in science or society. Through scientific communication research, new facts are derived to explain a phenomenon on any discipline.
Secondly, scientific Communication Research helps in the formulation of theoretical and methodological problems. Through scientific communication research theories and methods are developed. These theories and methods help to formulate problem and then solve problems generated. When problems emanate, people turn to ask questions such as: what are the causes of a particular phenomenon? What are the consequences of street children on the development of a nation? When these problems are generated, communication research then creates theories and methods to solve the problem.
Scientific Communication Research aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing knowledge. Thus, it helps to expand existence perception in a system by identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. There is an instinct of inquisitiveness in every individual, due to this when one faces a situation or problem, the person probe and attains full understanding of the problem or situation. Thus, through scientific Communication Research one obtains additional information to enrich his or her existing knowledge. For example, a typical traditionalist would see a societal problem been caused by angered gods or ancestors but through communication research one’s perception is broadened to know the causation of that societal problem as a social or political factor.
Scientific Communication Research provides vital techniques for future research workers. This aids other researchers to find out what methods and procedures have been used, what literature has been covered and what contributions have been made by the previous researcher. This in a way helps other researchers not to repeat the same methods or procedures used by another researcher in solving a particular phenomenon or problem. Nunnally (1994) said “a key principle about science is that any statement of fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by other scientist.” This is to say that no research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself.
Apart from it providing vital techniques for future research it also serves as an effective form of training in scientific and social investigation. It helps the researcher to develop his or her critical faculties. As an individual goes through a series of step to step process, his or her faculties is developed critically and also enable one to deal with social phenomenon in terms of research.
There are four main characteristics of communication research.
The first characteristic of communication research is empiricism. This means that communication research is based on observation. Researchers must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to reject metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. Empiricism also talks of the predictive and objective nature of communication research. Predictive, in the sense that it relates the present to the future. Communication research is also objective since it tries to rule out peculiarity of judgment by researchers. Objectivity also requires that scientific study deals with facts rather than interpretations.
Also, communication research is theoretical. This means that communication research attempts to summarize complex observation and abstract logical related preposition which implies to explain informal relations in the subject matter.
Moreover, communication research is systematic and cumulative in nature. Cumulative in that theories build upon one another with new theories correcting, extending, and challenging or defying the old ones. It goes through a laid down procedures and each stage builds the knowledge acquired from the immediate stages. “No single research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself”.
Lastly, communication research is non-ethical. This is to say that social scientist do not ask whether a particular social actions are good or bad. They merely seek to explain the social actions.
In conclusion, the above stated points clearly depict the significance and characteristics of communication research.
(A) WHAT ARE THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS?
Scientific method is “a general term describing the spirit and method of all sciences”. That is, the way of doing things the scientific way. (Tom K.B Kumepkor, 2002). This basically refers to certain distinctive rules of procedure and mental framework within which work of any scientific nature may be carried out.
Tentatively, we can identify the following as the basic elements as well as stages in the scientific method.
The first stage is observation. During this stage, data is collected from the observation. When an investigator has clearly defined the particular problem area of his investigations he is ready to embark upon the observation stage of his research design. In order to acquire first hand knowledge of a particular phenomenon, one has to in one way or the other, observe the phenomenon. Observation brings the investigator into contact, in one way or the other, with the phenomenon being studied. In this way, it becomes an effective means of recording what is observed more precisely and with a greater reliability because careful observation directs the attention of the researcher to what to select, what to admit and to what questions are relevant to ask in specific research situations relating to the particular research problem being investigated.
The second stage is classification. Under this stage, the data collected in the observation stage is classified either into groups or ungroup. In the classification stage there is some processing, analyzing and interpretation of data.
Thirdly, the data collected needs to be organized and this brings us to the organization stage. The data classified is now organized into charts, tables or maps.
The fourth stage is the measuring of data organized. The data collected is measured to determine the precise unit, the level of measurement whether nominal, ordinal, ratios and the like.
Formulation of a working hypothesis is the fifth stage. A hypothesis may be considered as a suggested answer to a problem or an assumption made by a researcher to provide him with a guide to the problem he intends to investigate as well as providing him with a restricted focus to direct his attention in the observation stage of his research. From this conception of a hypothesis it should be evident that the term does not, in any way, presuppose a statement or a proposition which has been tested or verified. There is no assumption or proof, truth or validity in a hypothesis thus conceived, on the contrary, such a conception of hypothesis necessitate a clarification or a proof as such a statement or proposition.
Moreover, analyzing, interpretation and summary is the sixth stage. The data is diagnosed through the use of techniques such as mode, mean, median and quartiles.
The final stage of the scientific method is the prediction stage. Possible outcomes, results are forecasted.
In actual practice, the manner in which stages one to seven (1-7) are combined and articulated constitutes the scientific methods. Kenneth Hoover notes an essential point about scientific method which is “the scientific method seeks to test thoughts against reality in a disciplined manner with each step in the process made explicit”.
(B) EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLES THE VARIOUS TYPOLOGIES OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS.
Science derived from the Latin word “scientia” means knowledge acquired through a study. Science is a systematic body of knowledge on any discipline or subject acquired through a logical, careful and objective observation, experimentation and measurement of phenomenon with valid conclusions. There are four broad types of science which are physical, formal, meteorological and social.
Physical science refers to the sciences that have physics, biology, chemistry and astronomy which examines matter, energy and the way the universe behaves.
Formal science is also based on distinctive principles. Examples are logic and mathematics
Meteorological science is the study of the processes that causes a particular condition. For example, weather forecasting.
Social science on the other hand is the type of science that deals with the problems of the society. For example: economical science, sociology, philosophical science and political science.
In conclusion, all the four types of science are all built upon knowledge and could be labeled scientific if the method used for study is a systematic approach.
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH?
Wilbur Schramm refers to communication as “a relationship, an act of sharing messages, or sharing of an orientation towards a set informational science”. Research is also defined by Redman and Mory as “a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. Communication research is therefore, an aspect of social science which solves a problem or question in a systematized way.
There are two main types of communication Research. Basic research and applied research. Basic research is “an original scientific investigation which is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge rather than for immediate gains”. While applied research is an “investigation base on scientific method and with the overt objective of discovering new products and services”. (P.A Twumasi, 1997)
Moreover, communication research involves; developing traditions, that is planning a way to do something, taking out irrelevant things, adhering to scientific rules and interplay of publishing and printing. The author should do well to remember one important fact, which is the title would be read by thousands of people. Therefore all words in the title should be as fewer as possible but adequately describing the context of the work. It also involves an acceptable primary scientific publication. The publication should contain enough information which could easily be reviewed and evaluated. The publication must also be available and subjected to regular screening by one or more of the major recognized services.
Communication research is cyclical. This means that, the methods begins with facts then progresses through theories and predictions and returns to new facts at the end of the cycle and the beginning of the next. Communication research goes through three steps and these are; induction, deduction and verification. The inductive approach is the process where observed facts are used to generate theories consistent of the fact. Deduction is the process whereby a research possesses questions. For instance, what are the consequences of street children?
There is a lot of importance associated with communication research. The main essence of communication research is to discover new facts. One goes into research to get more knowledge or derive basic knowledge about a phenomenon or a problem. These facts are then use in solving problems. Communication research also aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing perception in a system by identifying problems and identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. For example; an illiterate might seen a misfortune to be the cause of angered gods instead of a natural or political cause.
Finally, communication research as a social science answers question in a systematized way. It is an attempt to provide valid answers to the Japanese 5W’s and H, why, who, when, where, what.
(B) EXPLAIN THE RELEVANCE OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science that adapts a systematic approach to solve social phenomenon.
The main essence of Communication Research is to discover new facts. Using the new facts, there is confirmation, revision, or rejection of existing theory and accepted practices. Communication Research therefore analyzes the result of studious inquiry into a problem that might have arisen out of a felt need in science or society. Through communication research, new facts are derived to explain a phenomenon on any discipline.
Secondly, Communication Research helps in the formulation of theoretical and methodological problems. Through communication research theories and methods are developed. These theories and methods help to formulate problem and then solve problems generated. When problems emanate, people turn to ask questions such as: what are the causes of street children? What are the consequences of street children on the development of a nation? When these problems are generated, communication research then creates theories and methods to solve the problem.
Communication Research aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing knowledge. Thus, it helps to expand existence perception in a system by identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. There is an instinct of curiosity in every individual, due to this when one faces a situation or problem, the person probe and attains full understanding of the problem or situation. Thus, through Communication Research one obtains additional information to enrich his or her existing knowledge. For example, a typical traditionalist would see a societal problem been caused by angered gods or ancestors but through communication research one’s perception is broadened to know the causation of that societal problem as a social factor or political factor.
Communication Research provides vital techniques for future research workers. This aids other researchers to find out what methods and procedures have been used, what literature has been covered and what contributions have been made by the previous researcher. This in a way helps other researchers not to repeat the same methods or procedures used by another researcher in solving a particular phenomenon or problem. Nunnally (1994) said “a key principle about science is that any statement of fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by another scientist.” This is to say that no research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself.
Apart from it providing vital techniques for future research it also serves as an effective form of training in scientific and social investigation. It helps the researcher to develop his or her critical faculties. As an individual goes through a series of step to step process, his or her faculties is developed critically and also enable one to deal with social phenomenon in terms of research.
In a nutshell, communication research is associated with a lot relevance which is explained above.
DEFINE THE TERM RESEARCH
A. ORDINARY
B. BROAD PERSPECTIVE
C. ACADEMIC POINT OF VIEW.
“Research is commonly known as the act of searching again or seeking again”. An act which involves the person going out to have a careful look at a phenomenon or a problem. The problem is in existence but a careful look is going to be conducted and this act is commonly referred to as “research”.
In the broad perspective research is considered as any activity whose aim is to find a valid answer to a question that has been raised. To determine the validity of a particular phenomenon, the scientific method of inquiry ought to be used. Broadly speaking, research uses the scientific method to achieve its motive of deriving the validity of a phenomenon.
Research is an art of scientific investigation. Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines research as “a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a (new) understanding.” Tom K.B. Kumepkor (2002) talks of research as “problem- oriented”. That is, it always starts from or is prompted by a question or a problem for which an answer is sought. It involves systematic and usually critical observation of one sort or other. Redman and Mory in their point of view define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.
In the sense of discipline, it is an intense purposeful search for knowledge and understanding of social and physical phenomenon. It is an act which discovers the true nature in a scientific way.
(A) IDENTIFY AND COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE TYPOLOGIES OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science which solves a particular phenomenon or problem in a systematic manner. They are two broad types of communication- basic or primary research and applied or policy oriented research.
Basic research as defined by P.A Twumasi (1997) is an “an original scientific investigation which is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge rather than for immediate financial gains”. Applied research on the other hand, is “an investigation base on scientific method and with the overt objective of discovering new products and processes”. (P.A Twumasi, 1997)
Basic and applied researches have one common feature. This feature stems from the fact that both researches are scientific. From both definitions, there is a realization that basic research is a “scientific investigation” and applied research is an investigation base on “scientific method”. Thus both researches are scientific.
Despite the fact that both researches have a common feature, they are different in some ways. Firstly, basic research is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge but applied research has an overt objective of discovering new products and services.
Secondly, basic research is not undertaken because of immediate financial gains but for applied research, some of the researches are conducted gearing towards financial gains. Not all applied researches but some.
Lastly, both researches have different methodologies. Applied research is base on scientific method but basic research is not base on any scientific method.
In conclusion, there are two broad types of communication research and these communication researches have their own similarities and differences.
(B) WHAT IS THE MAIN FOCUS OF A COMMUNICATION RESEARCHER?
Communication research as an aspect of social science which uses systematic approach in solving problems or a phenomenon. Any individual who goes into any research of such kind is a communication researcher. A communication researcher therefore focuses on qualitative and descriptive methods.
WHAT DOES THE ACRONYM IMRAD STANDS FOR. HOW RELEVANT IS IT IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH. WHAT DOES COMMUNICATION RESEARCH ENTAIL?
IMRAD is an acronym which stands for introduction, method, results and discussion.
IMRAD is the simplest and most logical way to communicate research results. Most editors chose IMRAD because of its rigidity. It saves space (expense), making life easier for editors and reviewers as well. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in a question form. What question (problem) was studied? – Introduction. How was the problem studied? – Methods. What were the findings? – Results. What do these findings mean? – Discussion.
IMRAD aids in the writing of manuscript. With the help of the IMRAD structure the author easily organizes his information, ideas and these aid him to write his manuscript.
IMRAD also provide easy roadmap for editors, referees. This is to say that, IMRAD provides an easy structure for any piece of work which in a way makes it easy for editors or referees.
It also, helps communicators to follow communication researcher. Base on the logic structure of IMRAD it aids any individual aside the author to follow a piece of work written.
Communication research as an aspect of social science involve developing traditions, editorial practices, scientific ethics and inter- play of printing procedures.
Also, an acceptable primary scientific publication which should be easy for review and evaluation is associated with communication research. The publication should be available and subjected to regular screening by one or more of the major recognized services.
Communication research is also associated with scheming an all- inclusive title. The author should do well to remember one imperative fact that, the title would be read by thousands of people. Therefore all words in the title should be as fewer as possible but adequately describing the context of the work.
In sum, communication research is therefore an attempt to provide answers to the Japanese 5W’s and H, which is what, when, why, where, who and how.
5. EXPLAIN AS CLEARLY THE FOLLOWING
SYSTEMATIC
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines systematic as “done according to a system or plan, in a thorough, efficient or determined way.” Example of “systematic” in sentences:
(1) A systematic attempt to destroy the organization.
(2) The prisoner was subjected to systematic torture.
Systematic therefore is the way of doing something in a careful, well organized or resolute way. In this way, you follow laid down procedures in your activity.
OBSERVATION
“To watch carefully (the way something happens or someone does something) especially in order to learn more about it.” (Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1996).
It is presuppose that very often when a look is taken at a situation, our observation may be subjected to errors. There is therefore the need to take a second and third looks. Anytime an observation is carried out, what is seen differs according to
• What we know (knowledge level)
• What we think (perception)
• What we expect (conception)
Therefore, to observe scientifically requires
• Previous knowledge
• Training
• Experience
In the nutshell, observation in scientific investigation however implies much more than a mere unthinking process but base on the realization that “there is more to seeing than meet the eye balls.”
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
Scientific research is base on taking a careful look at, as opposed to an informal observation. It deals with a critical and scientific analysis (scrutiny) of social facts and the formulation of generalization as a basis for actions and forecast.
WHAT RESEARCH IS NOT?
Knowledge, facts or information derived from a research which is not subjected to rigorous verification and fortification does not qualify the description of research.
Also, research is not merely an accumulation of knowledge, informal observation nor communication of knowledge.
Research is therefore “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis” (Clifford Woody).
Quantitative research is the measurement of quality and amount. It is therefore applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in quantity. It is concerned with the determination of the relative amount of the unknown constituents or variables. Example age statistics, voting statistics, number of pregnancy cases and the like
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena relating to or involving quality. It involves the determination of unknown constituents of a substance. For example: investigating the reasons for human behaviour.
George A. Lundberg defines science as “a technique of deriving reliable knowledge about any type of phenomenon in the universe and then applying this derived knowledge for purposes of prediction and control”. Science derived from the Latin origin “scientia” which means knowledge acquired through a study. When a study or a process is set towards science then it could be labeled as a scientific study. Roger D. Winner and Joseph R. Dominick in their book Mass Media Research 5th edition, kerlinger (1986) defines scientific research as “a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among observed phenomena”. Tom K.B Kumekpor in his book Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research defines scientific study as “the general term describing the spirit and method of all science.” These basically refer to certain distinctive rules of a procedure and mental framework within which any work of scientific nature may be carried out. It includes the steps through which such an exercise must pass, the rules of procedures, the mental and intellectual framework within which such work should be carried out.
There are four basic characteristics of scientific study. Any study or research process which does not possess these characteristics cannot be viewed as scientific study. The first characteristic of communication research is empiricism. This means that communication research is based on observation. Researchers must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to reject metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. Empiricism also talks of the predictive and objective nature of communication research. It is also predictive, in the sense that it relates the present to the future. Communication research is objective since it tries to rule out peculiarities of judgment by researchers. Objectivity also requires that communication research deals with facts rather than interpretations.
Secondly, scientific study is theoretical. This means that communication research attempts to summarize difficult observation and intangible logical related preposition which implies to explain casual relations in the subject matter.
Moreover, scientific study is systematic and cumulative in nature. Cumulative in that theories are build upon one another with new theories approving, broadening, and challenging the odd ones. It goes through a laid down procedures and each stage builds the knowledge acquired from the immediate stages. “No single research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself”.
Lastly, scientific study is non-ethical. This is to say that social scientist do not ask whether a particular social actions are good or bad. They simply seek to explain the social actions.
Notwithstanding all these characteristics of scientific study or research, it approaches learning as a series of small steps. That is one study or one source provides only an indication of what may or may not be true. The “truth” is found only through a series of objective analysis. Scientific study or method is self correcting, in that changes in thought or theory are appropriate when errors in previous research are uncovered.
Scientific study is therefore concerned with
• Observation (collection of data)
• Classification of data collected ( group or ungroup)
• Organization of data (charts, tables or maps)
• Measurements of data (precise units, level of measurement, nominal , ordinal, intervals and ratios)
• Hypothesis (testable statements about observed phenomenon or expected outcome)
• Analyses, interpretation and summary of data ( diagnosis through the use of techniques such as mode, mean, median and quartels)
• Predictions ( possible outcome, result or prognosis)
To sum it all up, any research or knowledge acquired which does not go through the scientific method of inquiry and does not possess the characteristics of a scientific study cannot be labeled as such.
(B) HOW DOES IT DIFFER FROM MYTHOLOGY
Scientific study and mythology are all categories of knowledge but both knowledge’s are differently built in terms of definition, characteristics and structure (mode of appearance).
Scientific study as defined by Tom K.B Kumekpor (2002) in his book Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research implies “the particular procedures and logic, systematically and rigorously applied to the observation, collection, classification, analysis and interpretation of empirical data”. Mythology on the other hand refers to knowledge that is concerned with personal belief, experience or perception. A clear distinction is even created in both definitions.
Secondly, in terms of characteristics scientific study is concerned with empiricism, theoretical, cumulative and non-ethical. All these characteristics of scientific study subject it to fortification and verification. This is well explained in the statement made by Nunnally (1994) “a key principle of science is that, any statement or fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by another scientist”. Mythology, on the other hand is morally based, filled with personal values and therefore lacks fortification and verification. It is usually subjected to individual or personal judgment or value.
Thirdly, scientific study follows laid down procedures – observation, classification, organization, measurement, hypothesis, analysis/interpretation/summary and predictions. In the case of mythology, it does not follow any laid down procedures.
In conclusion, it could be noticed that although both scientific study and mythology are knowledge based, they differ in the sense of definition, characteristics and structure.
BRIEFLY EXPLAIN THE RATIONALE FOR COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science that adapts systematic approach in solving social phenomenon. Research involves procedures which normally go through a kind of process that ensures that the scientific method is utilized. There are seven inter- related activities involved in the procedures.
• Generating a research problem.
• Constructing hypothesis.
• Establishing research objectives.
• Identifying research methodology.
• Methods of data collection
• Analysis of data
• Formulation of empirical generalization
Though each research study has it own specific purpose the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and not yet discovered. The specific purpose of research could be identified in the following broad areas.
Exploratory or formulatory research
In exploratory research the purpose is to gain familiarity with the phenomenon, to minimize the mistakes and bias in the process of answering questions and to move beyond ideal curiosity into formulating questions.
Descriptive research.
The purpose of descriptive research is to portray precisely the uniqueness of a particular individual, situation or a group or to create a link among otherwise desperate sources of information. It also seeks to communicate effectively ideas either by written or spoken to other people.
Diagnostic research
Diagnostic research seeks to test competing interpretations of events against one another, so that a best account of the same phenomenon can be isolated.
Testing research (hypothesis)
The main rationale behind testing research is to test a hypothesis of an underlying relationship between variables and also to use qualitative and quantitative skills to solve problems.
The above points clearly state the rationale behind every communication research.
(A) IS THERE ANY CORRELATION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE
To some extent there is a high degree of correlation between science and knowledge. Good and Hatt define science as “an accumulation of systematic knowledge.” Radcliffe Brown also defines science as a body of knowledge existing at a certain moment of the time”. George A. Lundberg defines science as “a technique of deriving reliable knowledge about any type of phenomena in the universe and then applying this derived knowledge for purposes of prediction and control.” The basic element common to all three definitions is knowledge. Knowledge according to Longman dictionary is “the fact or condition of knowing somebody or something through experience or association”. In other words “an acquaintance with, understanding or awareness of something.”
Science derived from a Latin origin “scientia” which means “knowledge acquired through a study”. Science is about knowledge, without knowledge there is no science. Knowledge is the basis of all science. If there is no knowledge then science would not exist.
Also, when there is knowledge about a particular phenomenon, a problem can then be generated. When this problem is generated, it then goes through the process of science (scientific method). So, without the initial knowledge about that phenomenon, issue of science would not be identified.
The four types of science that is physical, formal, meteorological and social are all generated based on knowledge. It could be noticed that, every aspect of science is base on knowledge. Knowledge is what makes science.
Finally, there is some extent of correlation between science and knowledge since knowledge is the basis of all sciences.
(B) EXPLAIN THE SIGNIFICANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Scientific communication research is an aspect of social science which adapt a systematic approach in solving social problems. The essence of scientific communication research is that it is based on the scientific method of enquiry. Successful scientific communication research result from clear mind attacking a clearly stated problem and producing clearly stated conclusions.
The main essence of scientific Communication Research is to discover new facts. Using the new facts, there is confirmation, revision, or rejection of existing theory and accepted practices. Scientific Communication Research therefore analyzes the result of studious inquiry into a problem that might nave arisen out of a felt need in science or society. Through scientific communication research, new facts are derived to explain a phenomenon on any discipline.
Secondly, scientific Communication Research helps in the formulation of theoretical and methodological problems. Through scientific communication research theories and methods are developed. These theories and methods help to formulate problem and then solve problems generated. When problems emanate, people turn to ask questions such as: what are the causes of a particular phenomenon? What are the consequences of street children on the development of a nation? When these problems are generated, communication research then creates theories and methods to solve the problem.
Scientific Communication Research aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing knowledge. Thus, it helps to expand existence perception in a system by identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. There is an instinct of inquisitiveness in every individual, due to this when one faces a situation or problem, the person probe and attains full understanding of the problem or situation. Thus, through scientific Communication Research one obtains additional information to enrich his or her existing knowledge. For example, a typical traditionalist would see a societal problem been caused by angered gods or ancestors but through communication research one’s perception is broadened to know the causation of that societal problem as a social or political factor.
Scientific Communication Research provides vital techniques for future research workers. This aids other researchers to find out what methods and procedures have been used, what literature has been covered and what contributions have been made by the previous researcher. This in a way helps other researchers not to repeat the same methods or procedures used by another researcher in solving a particular phenomenon or problem. Nunnally (1994) said “a key principle about science is that any statement of fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by other scientist.” This is to say that no research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself.
Apart from it providing vital techniques for future research it also serves as an effective form of training in scientific and social investigation. It helps the researcher to develop his or her critical faculties. As an individual goes through a series of step to step process, his or her faculties is developed critically and also enable one to deal with social phenomenon in terms of research.
There are four main characteristics of communication research.
The first characteristic of communication research is empiricism. This means that communication research is based on observation. Researchers must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to reject metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. Empiricism also talks of the predictive and objective nature of communication research. Predictive, in the sense that it relates the present to the future. Communication research is also objective since it tries to rule out peculiarity of judgment by researchers. Objectivity also requires that scientific study deals with facts rather than interpretations.
Also, communication research is theoretical. This means that communication research attempts to summarize complex observation and abstract logical related preposition which implies to explain informal relations in the subject matter.
Moreover, communication research is systematic and cumulative in nature. Cumulative in that theories build upon one another with new theories correcting, extending, and challenging or defying the old ones. It goes through a laid down procedures and each stage builds the knowledge acquired from the immediate stages. “No single research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself”.
Lastly, communication research is non-ethical. This is to say that social scientist do not ask whether a particular social actions are good or bad. They merely seek to explain the social actions.
In conclusion, the above stated points clearly depict the significance and characteristics of communication research.
(A) WHAT ARE THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS?
Scientific method is “a general term describing the spirit and method of all sciences”. That is, the way of doing things the scientific way. (Tom K.B Kumepkor, 2002). This basically refers to certain distinctive rules of procedure and mental framework within which work of any scientific nature may be carried out.
Tentatively, we can identify the following as the basic elements as well as stages in the scientific method.
The first stage is observation. During this stage, data is collected from the observation. When an investigator has clearly defined the particular problem area of his investigations he is ready to embark upon the observation stage of his research design. In order to acquire first hand knowledge of a particular phenomenon, one has to in one way or the other, observe the phenomenon. Observation brings the investigator into contact, in one way or the other, with the phenomenon being studied. In this way, it becomes an effective means of recording what is observed more precisely and with a greater reliability because careful observation directs the attention of the researcher to what to select, what to admit and to what questions are relevant to ask in specific research situations relating to the particular research problem being investigated.
The second stage is classification. Under this stage, the data collected in the observation stage is classified either into groups or ungroup. In the classification stage there is some processing, analyzing and interpretation of data.
Thirdly, the data collected needs to be organized and this brings us to the organization stage. The data classified is now organized into charts, tables or maps.
The fourth stage is the measuring of data organized. The data collected is measured to determine the precise unit, the level of measurement whether nominal, ordinal, ratios and the like.
Formulation of a working hypothesis is the fifth stage. A hypothesis may be considered as a suggested answer to a problem or an assumption made by a researcher to provide him with a guide to the problem he intends to investigate as well as providing him with a restricted focus to direct his attention in the observation stage of his research. From this conception of a hypothesis it should be evident that the term does not, in any way, presuppose a statement or a proposition which has been tested or verified. There is no assumption or proof, truth or validity in a hypothesis thus conceived, on the contrary, such a conception of hypothesis necessitate a clarification or a proof as such a statement or proposition.
Moreover, analyzing, interpretation and summary is the sixth stage. The data is diagnosed through the use of techniques such as mode, mean, median and quartiles.
The final stage of the scientific method is the prediction stage. Possible outcomes, results are forecasted.
In actual practice, the manner in which stages one to seven (1-7) are combined and articulated constitutes the scientific methods. Kenneth Hoover notes an essential point about scientific method which is “the scientific method seeks to test thoughts against reality in a disciplined manner with each step in the process made explicit”.
(B) EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLES THE VARIOUS TYPOLOGIES OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS.
Science derived from the Latin word “scientia” means knowledge acquired through a study. Science is a systematic body of knowledge on any discipline or subject acquired through a logical, careful and objective observation, experimentation and measurement of phenomenon with valid conclusions. There are four broad types of science which are physical, formal, meteorological and social.
Physical science refers to the sciences that have physics, biology, chemistry and astronomy which examines matter, energy and the way the universe behaves.
Formal science is also based on distinctive principles. Examples are logic and mathematics
Meteorological science is the study of the processes that causes a particular condition. For example, weather forecasting.
Social science on the other hand is the type of science that deals with the problems of the society. For example: economical science, sociology, philosophical science and political science.
In conclusion, all the four types of science are all built upon knowledge and could be labeled scientific if the method used for study is a systematic approach.
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH?
Wilbur Schramm refers to communication as “a relationship, an act of sharing messages, or sharing of an orientation towards a set informational science”. Research is also defined by Redman and Mory as “a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. Communication research is therefore, an aspect of social science which solves a problem or question in a systematized way.
There are two main types of communication Research. Basic research and applied research. Basic research is “an original scientific investigation which is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge rather than for immediate gains”. While applied research is an “investigation base on scientific method and with the overt objective of discovering new products and services”. (P.A Twumasi, 1997)
Moreover, communication research involves; developing traditions, that is planning a way to do something, taking out irrelevant things, adhering to scientific rules and interplay of publishing and printing. The author should do well to remember one important fact, which is the title would be read by thousands of people. Therefore all words in the title should be as fewer as possible but adequately describing the context of the work. It also involves an acceptable primary scientific publication. The publication should contain enough information which could easily be reviewed and evaluated. The publication must also be available and subjected to regular screening by one or more of the major recognized services.
Communication research is cyclical. This means that, the methods begins with facts then progresses through theories and predictions and returns to new facts at the end of the cycle and the beginning of the next. Communication research goes through three steps and these are; induction, deduction and verification. The inductive approach is the process where observed facts are used to generate theories consistent of the fact. Deduction is the process whereby a research possesses questions. For instance, what are the consequences of street children?
There is a lot of importance associated with communication research. The main essence of communication research is to discover new facts. One goes into research to get more knowledge or derive basic knowledge about a phenomenon or a problem. These facts are then use in solving problems. Communication research also aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing perception in a system by identifying problems and identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. For example; an illiterate might seen a misfortune to be the cause of angered gods instead of a natural or political cause.
Finally, communication research as a social science answers question in a systematized way. It is an attempt to provide valid answers to the Japanese 5W’s and H, why, who, when, where, what.
(B) EXPLAIN THE RELEVANCE OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science that adapts a systematic approach to solve social phenomenon.
The main essence of Communication Research is to discover new facts. Using the new facts, there is confirmation, revision, or rejection of existing theory and accepted practices. Communication Research therefore analyzes the result of studious inquiry into a problem that might have arisen out of a felt need in science or society. Through communication research, new facts are derived to explain a phenomenon on any discipline.
Secondly, Communication Research helps in the formulation of theoretical and methodological problems. Through communication research theories and methods are developed. These theories and methods help to formulate problem and then solve problems generated. When problems emanate, people turn to ask questions such as: what are the causes of street children? What are the consequences of street children on the development of a nation? When these problems are generated, communication research then creates theories and methods to solve the problem.
Communication Research aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing knowledge. Thus, it helps to expand existence perception in a system by identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. There is an instinct of curiosity in every individual, due to this when one faces a situation or problem, the person probe and attains full understanding of the problem or situation. Thus, through Communication Research one obtains additional information to enrich his or her existing knowledge. For example, a typical traditionalist would see a societal problem been caused by angered gods or ancestors but through communication research one’s perception is broadened to know the causation of that societal problem as a social factor or political factor.
Communication Research provides vital techniques for future research workers. This aids other researchers to find out what methods and procedures have been used, what literature has been covered and what contributions have been made by the previous researcher. This in a way helps other researchers not to repeat the same methods or procedures used by another researcher in solving a particular phenomenon or problem. Nunnally (1994) said “a key principle about science is that any statement of fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by another scientist.” This is to say that no research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself.
Apart from it providing vital techniques for future research it also serves as an effective form of training in scientific and social investigation. It helps the researcher to develop his or her critical faculties. As an individual goes through a series of step to step process, his or her faculties is developed critically and also enable one to deal with social phenomenon in terms of research.
In a nutshell, communication research is associated with a lot relevance which is explained above.
DEFINE THE TERM RESEARCH
A. ORDINARY
B. BROAD PERSPECTIVE
C. ACADEMIC POINT OF VIEW.
“Research is commonly known as the act of searching again or seeking again”. An act which involves the person going out to have a careful look at a phenomenon or a problem. The problem is in existence but a careful look is going to be conducted and this act is commonly referred to as “research”.
In the broad perspective research is considered as any activity whose aim is to find a valid answer to a question that has been raised. To determine the validity of a particular phenomenon, the scientific method of inquiry ought to be used. Broadly speaking, research uses the scientific method to achieve its motive of deriving the validity of a phenomenon.
Research is an art of scientific investigation. Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines research as “a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a (new) understanding.” Tom K.B. Kumepkor (2002) talks of research as “problem- oriented”. That is, it always starts from or is prompted by a question or a problem for which an answer is sought. It involves systematic and usually critical observation of one sort or other. Redman and Mory in their point of view define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.
In the sense of discipline, it is an intense purposeful search for knowledge and understanding of social and physical phenomenon. It is an act which discovers the true nature in a scientific way.
(A) IDENTIFY AND COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE TYPOLOGIES OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science which solves a particular phenomenon or problem in a systematic manner. They are two broad types of communication- basic or primary research and applied or policy oriented research.
Basic research as defined by P.A Twumasi (1997) is an “an original scientific investigation which is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge rather than for immediate financial gains”. Applied research on the other hand, is “an investigation base on scientific method and with the overt objective of discovering new products and processes”. (P.A Twumasi, 1997)
Basic and applied researches have one common feature. This feature stems from the fact that both researches are scientific. From both definitions, there is a realization that basic research is a “scientific investigation” and applied research is an investigation base on “scientific method”. Thus both researches are scientific.
Despite the fact that both researches have a common feature, they are different in some ways. Firstly, basic research is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge but applied research has an overt objective of discovering new products and services.
Secondly, basic research is not undertaken because of immediate financial gains but for applied research, some of the researches are conducted gearing towards financial gains. Not all applied researches but some.
Lastly, both researches have different methodologies. Applied research is base on scientific method but basic research is not base on any scientific method.
In conclusion, there are two broad types of communication research and these communication researches have their own similarities and differences.
(B) WHAT IS THE MAIN FOCUS OF A COMMUNICATION RESEARCHER?
Communication research as an aspect of social science which uses systematic approach in solving problems or a phenomenon. Any individual who goes into any research of such kind is a communication researcher. A communication researcher therefore focuses on qualitative and descriptive methods.
WHAT DOES THE ACRONYM IMRAD STANDS FOR. HOW RELEVANT IS IT IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH. WHAT DOES COMMUNICATION RESEARCH ENTAIL?
IMRAD is an acronym which stands for introduction, method, results and discussion.
IMRAD is the simplest and most logical way to communicate research results. Most editors chose IMRAD because of its rigidity. It saves space (expense), making life easier for editors and reviewers as well. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in a question form. What question (problem) was studied? – Introduction. How was the problem studied? – Methods. What were the findings? – Results. What do these findings mean? – Discussion.
IMRAD aids in the writing of manuscript. With the help of the IMRAD structure the author easily organizes his information, ideas and these aid him to write his manuscript.
IMRAD also provide easy roadmap for editors, referees. This is to say that, IMRAD provides an easy structure for any piece of work which in a way makes it easy for editors or referees.
It also, helps communicators to follow communication researcher. Base on the logic structure of IMRAD it aids any individual aside the author to follow a piece of work written.
Communication research as an aspect of social science involve developing traditions, editorial practices, scientific ethics and inter- play of printing procedures.
Also, an acceptable primary scientific publication which should be easy for review and evaluation is associated with communication research. The publication should be available and subjected to regular screening by one or more of the major recognized services.
Communication research is also associated with scheming an all- inclusive title. The author should do well to remember one imperative fact that, the title would be read by thousands of people. Therefore all words in the title should be as fewer as possible but adequately describing the context of the work.
In sum, communication research is therefore an attempt to provide answers to the Japanese 5W’s and H, which is what, when, why, where, who and how.
5. EXPLAIN AS CLEARLY THE FOLLOWING
SYSTEMATIC
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines systematic as “done according to a system or plan, in a thorough, efficient or determined way.” Example of “systematic” in sentences:
(1) A systematic attempt to destroy the organization.
(2) The prisoner was subjected to systematic torture.
Systematic therefore is the way of doing something in a careful, well organized or resolute way. In this way, you follow laid down procedures in your activity.
OBSERVATION
“To watch carefully (the way something happens or someone does something) especially in order to learn more about it.” (Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1996).
It is presuppose that very often when a look is taken at a situation, our observation may be subjected to errors. There is therefore the need to take a second and third looks. Anytime an observation is carried out, what is seen differs according to
• What we know (knowledge level)
• What we think (perception)
• What we expect (conception)
Therefore, to observe scientifically requires
• Previous knowledge
• Training
• Experience
In the nutshell, observation in scientific investigation however implies much more than a mere unthinking process but base on the realization that “there is more to seeing than meet the eye balls.”
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
Scientific research is base on taking a careful look at, as opposed to an informal observation. It deals with a critical and scientific analysis (scrutiny) of social facts and the formulation of generalization as a basis for actions and forecast.
WHAT RESEARCH IS NOT?
Knowledge, facts or information derived from a research which is not subjected to rigorous verification and fortification does not qualify the description of research.
Also, research is not merely an accumulation of knowledge, informal observation nor communication of knowledge.
Research is therefore “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis” (Clifford Woody).
Quantitative research is the measurement of quality and amount. It is therefore applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in quantity. It is concerned with the determination of the relative amount of the unknown constituents or variables. Example age statistics, voting statistics, number of pregnancy cases and the like
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena relating to or involving quality. It involves the determination of unknown constituents of a substance. For example: investigating the reasons for human behaviour.
MARKETING
WHAT IS MARKETING?
Traditional school of marketing started as buying and selling. Economic school of marketing defines it as movement of goods from the producer to the consumer. Contemporary, marketing is defined as a managerial and social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products of value with others. Marketing can also be defined as the process that identifies, anticipate and strategies customer requirement profitably.
THE CORE CONCEPTS OF MARKETING.
1. TRANSACTION
A piece of business that is done between people especially in an act of buying or selling (trading). Example: KPOGAS Furniture Works sells furniture to an individual who buy it at a cost. Therefore there is trading of values between the two parties.
1. RELATIONSHIP
In marketing, relationship is the way in which companies and customers behave towards each other or deal with each other. There is this friendly and cordial atmosphere between them for a long period of time.
2. EXCHANGE
It is the act of receiving or acquiring a desired object from someone by offering something in return. For instance, a company like Nestle exchanges its product (milk) with money from a prospective buyer.
3. MARKET
A group of people who are the definite and potential buyers of a product. Example: Nursing mothers can serve as the definite and potential buyers of PAMPERS (baby’s napkins).
4. DEMAND
They are the wants backed by purchasing power. One demand products with remuneration.
5. NEED
A state of felt denial. To require something or somebody because they are essential or very important not just because you would like to have them. It can be physical needs (shelter, air) social needs (sense of belonging, affection) or individual needs (education, marriage).
6. WANT
To have a desire or wish for something. They take the form of ‘need’ but are shaped by the personality, culture or the individual’s preferences. Want comes in after the needs are satisfied.
Example: I want to buy a bicycle.
7. MARKETING OFFER
It is the combination of ideas, products, services, experiences provided to a market to satisfy their needs and wants. An idea could be ‘IF YOU DRINK, DON’T DRIVE, IF YOU DRIVE , DON’T DRINK’ , ‘STOP AIDS LOVE LIFE’. Services can also take the form of ‘MTN NETWORK SERVICES, ALLURE SPA’. Products can also be ‘MILK, GINO RICE’ and so on.
8. VALUE AND SATISFACTION
Value – how much something is worth in money or other goods for which it can be exchanged.
Satisfaction- the good feeling that one has when he or she has achieved something or when something that you wanted to happen does happen.
Companies must satisfy the needs of their customers because satisfied customers inform others about their experiences and dissatisfied customers switch brands. Also when satisfaction is exceeded customers are delighted.
Companies must also value their customers because a customer means more than loosing one sale but a series of purchases a customer would make over a life time.
THE MAJOR TRENDS AND FORCES THAT ARE CHANGING THE MARKETING LANDSCAPE IN THIS MODERN WORLD.
Traditionally, marketing started as buying and selling. Economically, it was viewed as the movement of goods from a provider to a consumer. In contemporary times marketing is also seen as satisfying the needs and wants of customers. All these schools of thoughts definition are influenced by some major trends and forces in our modern world.
The are four major forces associated and these are: The call for ethics and social responsibility, Rapid globalisation, The growth of not-for-profit marketing and the New digital age.
1. THE CALL FOR MORE ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
There is reassessment by marketers into how they relate with the very ground that sustains them. Satisfying or giving back what you have taken from a community is being socially responsible. Marketing has now taken a new look since it has to consider the welfare of the society in which it operates. Example: Obuasi Gold Fields (Mines) would sponsor festivals and other programmes mostly concerning the inhabitants of Obuasi other than any society and this makes them socially responsible.
2. RAPID GLOBALISATION
The world is a global village as popularly said. This means that marketers are now connected globally to their marketing partners. Due to globalisation companies are able to sell internationally aside local selling. Therefore marketers are now not only thinking of satisfying the needs and wants of the people but also how to market their product, service or idea both locally and internationally.
3. THE GROWTH OF NOT-FOR – PROFIT MARKETING
Marketing has been given a new landscape in this modern world due to the growth of not- for -profit marketing. In recent times marketing is being used by organisations such as hospitals, schools, unlike the past where marketing was widely used in product manufacturing companies. Some long–standing not-for-profit organizations like Red Cross Society, St. Johns Society are now applying marketing principle to modernise their aims, objectives and services.
4. NEW DIGITAL AGE
The recent technology boom has had a great impact on the way marketers connect with and bring value to their customers. It has created a thrilling way to get and learn more about customers. It has also help customers to receive their purchases in less than 24 hours.
In summary, today changing marketing landscape companies must take into account building customer relationship, control marketing technology and make certain that, they act in an ethical and socially responsible way.
Traditional school of marketing started as buying and selling. Economic school of marketing defines it as movement of goods from the producer to the consumer. Contemporary, marketing is defined as a managerial and social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products of value with others. Marketing can also be defined as the process that identifies, anticipate and strategies customer requirement profitably.
THE CORE CONCEPTS OF MARKETING.
1. TRANSACTION
A piece of business that is done between people especially in an act of buying or selling (trading). Example: KPOGAS Furniture Works sells furniture to an individual who buy it at a cost. Therefore there is trading of values between the two parties.
1. RELATIONSHIP
In marketing, relationship is the way in which companies and customers behave towards each other or deal with each other. There is this friendly and cordial atmosphere between them for a long period of time.
2. EXCHANGE
It is the act of receiving or acquiring a desired object from someone by offering something in return. For instance, a company like Nestle exchanges its product (milk) with money from a prospective buyer.
3. MARKET
A group of people who are the definite and potential buyers of a product. Example: Nursing mothers can serve as the definite and potential buyers of PAMPERS (baby’s napkins).
4. DEMAND
They are the wants backed by purchasing power. One demand products with remuneration.
5. NEED
A state of felt denial. To require something or somebody because they are essential or very important not just because you would like to have them. It can be physical needs (shelter, air) social needs (sense of belonging, affection) or individual needs (education, marriage).
6. WANT
To have a desire or wish for something. They take the form of ‘need’ but are shaped by the personality, culture or the individual’s preferences. Want comes in after the needs are satisfied.
Example: I want to buy a bicycle.
7. MARKETING OFFER
It is the combination of ideas, products, services, experiences provided to a market to satisfy their needs and wants. An idea could be ‘IF YOU DRINK, DON’T DRIVE, IF YOU DRIVE , DON’T DRINK’ , ‘STOP AIDS LOVE LIFE’. Services can also take the form of ‘MTN NETWORK SERVICES, ALLURE SPA’. Products can also be ‘MILK, GINO RICE’ and so on.
8. VALUE AND SATISFACTION
Value – how much something is worth in money or other goods for which it can be exchanged.
Satisfaction- the good feeling that one has when he or she has achieved something or when something that you wanted to happen does happen.
Companies must satisfy the needs of their customers because satisfied customers inform others about their experiences and dissatisfied customers switch brands. Also when satisfaction is exceeded customers are delighted.
Companies must also value their customers because a customer means more than loosing one sale but a series of purchases a customer would make over a life time.
THE MAJOR TRENDS AND FORCES THAT ARE CHANGING THE MARKETING LANDSCAPE IN THIS MODERN WORLD.
Traditionally, marketing started as buying and selling. Economically, it was viewed as the movement of goods from a provider to a consumer. In contemporary times marketing is also seen as satisfying the needs and wants of customers. All these schools of thoughts definition are influenced by some major trends and forces in our modern world.
The are four major forces associated and these are: The call for ethics and social responsibility, Rapid globalisation, The growth of not-for-profit marketing and the New digital age.
1. THE CALL FOR MORE ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
There is reassessment by marketers into how they relate with the very ground that sustains them. Satisfying or giving back what you have taken from a community is being socially responsible. Marketing has now taken a new look since it has to consider the welfare of the society in which it operates. Example: Obuasi Gold Fields (Mines) would sponsor festivals and other programmes mostly concerning the inhabitants of Obuasi other than any society and this makes them socially responsible.
2. RAPID GLOBALISATION
The world is a global village as popularly said. This means that marketers are now connected globally to their marketing partners. Due to globalisation companies are able to sell internationally aside local selling. Therefore marketers are now not only thinking of satisfying the needs and wants of the people but also how to market their product, service or idea both locally and internationally.
3. THE GROWTH OF NOT-FOR – PROFIT MARKETING
Marketing has been given a new landscape in this modern world due to the growth of not- for -profit marketing. In recent times marketing is being used by organisations such as hospitals, schools, unlike the past where marketing was widely used in product manufacturing companies. Some long–standing not-for-profit organizations like Red Cross Society, St. Johns Society are now applying marketing principle to modernise their aims, objectives and services.
4. NEW DIGITAL AGE
The recent technology boom has had a great impact on the way marketers connect with and bring value to their customers. It has created a thrilling way to get and learn more about customers. It has also help customers to receive their purchases in less than 24 hours.
In summary, today changing marketing landscape companies must take into account building customer relationship, control marketing technology and make certain that, they act in an ethical and socially responsible way.
POLITICAL SCEINCE
REVIEW OF ANIMAL FARM
WHAT TYPE OF BOOK IS ANIMAL FARM?
It is an animal story written for adults. It is not so different from Watership Down or Dunction Wood. There are in fact, some similarities between all three- the most obvious being that in these books animals are given many of the characteristics of humans. The most significant thing about Animal Farm is that it is an allegory. An allegory is similar to a fable in that the story has two levels of meaning. In a fable the writer may use animal characters to make a point about human behaviour. An allegory is read and enjoyed for its surface meaning as well as for its more significant underlying meaning. Other important stories which are also allegories are Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift and The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan. Animal Farm takes events and ideas which might be thought abstract and theoretical and makes them concrete, readily understandable and entertaining. It makes a simple tale of rebellion on a farm into a complex story with a powerful message.
WHAT THE ALLEGORY IS ABOUT.
It is not just a story bout animals rebelling against the farmer and setting their own farm. It is about Russian Revolution of 1917 and the history of that country in the half century following. It is about what happen to ordinary people when other people have power over them and what happens to people when they get absolute power over others.
The Russian revolution overthrew the Tsar (Emperor) in 1917. The Russian Empire was replaced by a state run on communist principles called Soviet Union. In it, the workers and peasants, who had no power in the old system and had been badly treated for centuries were supposed to have power themselves. That was the ideal.
Those in power in other countries were scared by this event. What if their workers seized power? What if the ideas of the Russian revolution spread? The revolution was followed by a civil war between the new government (the Reds) and the supporters of the Tsar (the Whites). Foreign (including Britain) sent troops into Russian to help the Whites but in the end, they were beaten. The leader of the Red army, (Trotsky), the man largely responsible for the defeat of the Whites, the other main leader was a man called Lenin.
In the years that followed the Soviet Union tried to modernize and industrialize, it also sought to make its agriculture more efficient and to do away with the class of land owners by collectivization. There were many disagreements in the ruling communist party about how it should best be done. Eventually, after the death of Lenin in 1924, Stalin emerged as leader. Trotsky, who differed from Stalin on many issues, was exiled from the Soviet Union and later murdered in exile.
Stalin wanted to industrialize the Soviet Union whatever the cost to the Soviet people. He also pursued a policy of establishing communism in the Soviet Union alone, rather than trying to get other countries to have revolutions too, which was Trotsky’s policy. Many ordinary Soviet citizens suffered during these years from the enforced labour on industrial projects and from food shortage which were partly due to the harsh way collectivization was carried out.
Stalin grew increasingly powerful and would not tolerate any opposition. People who disagreed with him- even those in high positions and who had fought with Trotsky and Lenin in the revolution- were either exiled to labour camps in Siberia or killed. Stalin became increasingly paranoid- he suspected almost everyone of plotting against him and thousands of people were arrested and tried and executed for crimes they did not commit.
In 1936, the Soviet Union’s greatest enemy, Germany (under Hitler) made a non-aggression pact with the soviet government. This meant that the Soviet Union was not involved in the first two years of the Second World War. However, in 1941 Hitler attacked the Soviet Union and conquered vast areas. In a bitter campaign in which millions of Russians died, the Germany army was eventually pushed back in 1945. The Soviet Union joined the Britain, France and the USA (amongst others) as the victors of the Second World War. There was some improvement after the death of Stalin in 1953 when many of the labour camps were closed but not until the late1980 were there any signs of deeper changes.
SUMMARY OF THE BOOK- ANIMAL FARM.
After the drunken farmer Jones has gone to bed, all the animals of the farm assemble for a meeting. The meeting has been called by Old Major, a boar who is the oldest and wisest animal on the farm who had a dream and wanted to communicate it to them. In his speech, de drew the attention of the animals to their miserable, laborious and short lives “…our lives are miserable, laborious and short”. He attributed this as the cause of man. He painted man as their enemy and suggested that if their enemy is taken away, their miserable, laborious and short lives would be over “ only get rid of man , and the produce of our labour would be our own”. He urges the animals to fight the humans at every turn, and tells them that rebellion is the only possible solution to their situation and also urges them to pass the message of rebellion to those who come after them.
Old Major finally gets around to telling them about his dream, but the first thing he tells them is that he cannot describe the dream, except to say that it reminded him of a song that he learned in his youth called “Beasts of England.” He sings the song, which tells of the day when Man is finally overthrown, when there is no more slavery or cruelty, and when the animals are finally free. The animals in the barn respond rapturously to this, and sang it through together five times in succession, until they are interrupted by a blast from the farmer’s shotgun. The farm quickly returns to normality.
Old Major dies three days later. The animals set out to prepare for the rebellion. The pigs, being the most intelligent animals on the farm, take the lead on this. The task of working Old Major’s ideas into a more formal system falls to three pigs, Napoleon, Snowball and Squealer. These three organize regular night time meetings with the other animals to explain the principles of their system, called Animalism. Without any planning, the rebellion happens on Midsummer’s day, just before harvest. Farmer Jones gets hopelessly drunk the night before, and neglects to milk the cows or feed the animals all day. One of the cows breaks down a door to the store-shed, and several of the animals begin to help themselves from the bins. Jones now awakes and seeing this, he and his four farm hands begin whipping the animals out of the store-shed. The animals attack the humans spontaneously and furiously. They shocked men react by almost immediately running down the laneway and fleeing the farm. The farm now belongs to the animals.
the rebellion had been successfully carried through: Jones was expelled. Snowball, Napoleon together with the animals changed the Manor farm to Animal Farm; they reduced the principles of Animalism into seven commandments;
1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.
2. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.
3. No animal shall wear clothes.
4. No animal shall sleep in a bed.
5. No animal shall drink alcohol.
6. No animal shall kill any other animal.
7. All animals are equal.
After the rebellion all the animals worked diligently according to their capacity. As the weeks go by, it becomes clear that Napoleon and Snowball rarely agree about anything. Snowball puts all his energies into forming various committees, each of which is responsible for improving some or other aspect of life on the farm. Napoleon sees no value in this, and prefers to concentrate on educating the young. For example, when two of the dogs have litters, Napoleon takes the puppies away from their mothers and secludes them in an inaccessible part of the farm, so that he can educate them properly in the principles of Animalism. Snowball reduces the seven commandments to the single maxim “Four legs good, two legs bad!” which they can remember more easily. The pigs issued a decree stating that all windfall apples are to be gathered up and given over for the exclusive use of the pigs. Some of the animals are puzzled by this, and wonder why the apples are not to be shared out equally. Squealer goes before them to explain. He tells them that the pigs, as the leaders, must keep their brainpower up, and that science has proven that milk and apples are essential for this. Squealer goes on to remind them that the alternative to the pigs is to have Farmer Jones back. This settles the animals, who agree that, whatever happens, they never want to live under Jones again.
Snowball and Napoleon are sending pigeons to neighbouring farms and beyond, to tell the animals about the rebellion. News of the rebellion has spread to the surrounding county. The farmers at first pretend not to be troubled about the rebellion, believing that the animals cannot possibly make a success of the farm. But as time passes the farmers become more and more troubled, and their animals become more and more emboldened. The tune of Beasts of England is now known by nearly every animal in the county. The farmers were thoroughly frightened by the rebellion on Animal Farm and very anxious to prevent their own animals from learning too much about it.
Early in October, Jones, all his men, and half a dozen others from the neighbouring farms, attack Animal Farm with the objective of getting the farm back. Jones and his men were once again defeated by the defensive operations of Snowball. The animals celebrate their victory. The flag is raised, Beasts of England is sung. A medal for “Animal Hero, First Class and Second Class” is created, and awarded to Snowball and a sheep that died when Jones fired his gun.
With the land now frozen solid, it is impossible to do any farming. A lot of time is spent on meetings of all the animals in the big barn, where the future policy for the farm is discussed and voted on. The divisions between Snowball and Napoleon are becoming more pronounced, and it seems that they now oppose each other on every proposal. Snowball’s eloquence allows him to control the meetings, However, Napoleon works quietly behind the scenes building support, and succeeding in getting all of the sheep onto his side.
Snowball is forever proposing new plans and schemes for the improvement of the farm, all of which are opposed by Napoleon. Snowball’s most ambitious plan is for the construction of a windmill, which he says can provide heat and electricity to the farm.
Napoleon is completely against the idea, and makes his opposition clear. Snowball continues to work on his plans. The day comes when all the animals will gather in the big barn to vote on whether or not the windmill will be built. The farm is divided into two factions at this stage, the “Vote for Snowball and the three-day week” faction, and the “Vote for Napoleon and the full manger” faction. Snowball has convinced his faction that the windmill will lead to increased leisure time for everybody, while Napoleon has convinced his faction that the distraction of the windmill will cause the animals to lose time on the harvest and starve.
The meeting begins. The sheep heckle Snowball as he explains his plans for the windmill, and why it will be good for the farm. Napoleon then rises and gives a very brief and curt address, advising everyone to vote against the windmill. Snowball then speaks again. He talks passionately and eloquently, and creates a vision of a mechanized farm with heat and light, with electrical threshers and ploughs and reapers, where the animals do little or no work. It is clear that Snowball will win the vote.
Just then, Napoleon stands and emits a queer sound, a kind of whimper. At this signal, nine huge dogs, rush into the barn and charge at Snowball. They chase him from the barn and off the farm. He is never seen again.
The other animals, who had left the barn to watch the chase, now return to the barn, where Napoleon addresses them. He tells them that Sunday Meetings are henceforth abolished, and that all decisions in future will be taken solely by the pigs. Any dissent is silenced by growls from the dogs, and the meeting finishes to a fifteen-minute chorus of “Four legs good, two legs bad” from the sheep. Squealer follows up in the aftermath, explaining to the shocked animals of the farm that Napoleon has taken on the leadership with great reluctance and with great sacrifice to himself. The animals are soon won over when they are reminded of what life was like under Jones.
Three weeks after this fateful meeting, Napoleon announces that the Windmill will now be built. The animals are warned that this will mean lots of extra hard work, and a reduction in their rations. Another year passes. The animals work themselves to the bone on the harvest and on the windmill, all under the supervision of the pigs. The animals are asked to work on Sunday afternoons as well, on a voluntary basis, though any animal that did not work on Sunday had their rations halved. Progress on the windmill is laborious and slow. The stones with which it is to be built have to be hauled to the top of the quarry and thrown from there to the bottom, so that the stones can be broken into the appropriate sizes.
Napoleon announces one day that Animal Farm will henceforth enter into trading arrangements with some of the surrounding farms. Hay and wheat from the farm will be sold, and the hens are told that they will have to give up some of their eggs, a sacrifice that they should be proud to make. Some of the animals are doubtful about this move, seeming to remember an agreement in the early days after the rebellion never to have anything to do with humans. Squealer puts any doubts to rest in the following days, informing them that such a resolution was never written down.
From then on, Napoleon engages a local solicitor to act as the middleman between Animal Farm and the outside world. The solicitor comes every Monday, and his presence makes the other animals very uneasy, but their doubts are eased by their pride in seeing Napoleon give orders to a human.
Shortly afterwards, the pigs move into the farmhouse. They eat in the kitchen, relax in the drawing room, and even sleep in the beds. Some of the animals are very doubtful about this. Clover consults the seven commandments on the gable wall, and asks Muriel to read out the fourth commandment, which states, “No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets.” Muriel cannot remember sheets being mentioned before. However, helped by the smooth words of Squealer, she assumes that she must have been wrong; she and the other animals accept his argument that the pigs, as the leaders, must have as much comfort as possible to facilitate their brainwork.
The work on the windmill continues. The animals are all extremely proud of their progress so far, except for Benjamin, who expresses no opinion for or against the windmill. By November, the windmill is half finished. However, disaster strikes when a night time storm destroys it. Napoleon is silent for a long time, before making the sudden and dramatic announcement that the windmill was destroyed by Snowball. Some pig footprints leading away from the farm are discovered, and Napoleon confirms them to belong to Snowball. The other animals are shocked that their former leader could do such a thing. Napoleon announces that work on rebuilding the windmill will commence immediately.
At a Sunday meeting, Squealer announces that the hens must give up their eggs, so that they can be traded with the outside world for grain and meal. The hens are stunned into rebellion. They take to laying their eggs from the rafters of the coop, allowing them to smash to the ground. The pigs respond by stopping their rations completely, and threatening death on any other animals that shares their food with them. Eventually the hens relent, and they are forced to give up their eggs as soon as they are laid. All the while, the pigs spread terrible rumours about Snowball. Every mishap and misfortune on the farm was now attributed to Snowball.
An assembly of all the animals in the yard is now called. Napoleon, who now rarely leaves the farmhouse, and is never without his escort of dogs, stands before them. At a signal, the dogs charge into the crowd and drag four of the more troublesome pigs before Napoleon. At the same time, three of the dogs attach Boxer. Boxer easily fends them off. The miserable pigs are forced to confess to having been in league with Snowball, and are murdered on the spot by the dogs. Other animals come forward to confess various crimes against the farm, and each in turn is slaughtered. These are the first killings of other animals since the rebellion. The animals creep away from the meeting. Boxer, in trying to understand why this has happened, resolves that the only possible solution is to work harder. Clover, not as strong but more intelligent, has deep misgivings about what she has seen, but she cannot put them into words. She remains faithful to Napoleon, but deep down she knows that this state of affairs was not what they fought for in the rebellion. Squealer now tells the animals that the song is henceforth abolished. It is to be replaced with a song called Animal Farm, composed by one of the pigs. The animals take up the new song faithfully, but are aware that it does not compare to Beasts of England.
Squealer exhorts them to greater efforts, telling them that productivity on the farm has improved enormously since the rebellion, though many of the animals secretly feel hungry. Napoleon, who is now known as “Our Leader, Comrade Napoleon,” now employs a cockerel as a herald, as well as being accompanied at all times by his dogs. Relations between the neighbouring farms, Frederick of Pinchfield and Pilkington of Foxwood, remain complex. Napoleon, through the middleman, has been trying to sell off a pile of timber to one of the other neighbour. At this time, rumours abound that Frederick is about to attack the farm. A plot to murder Napoleon is uncovered. Three hens confess that Snowball, said to be living on Pinchfield, put them up to it. The hens are executed.
The windmill is completed by autumn. The animals forget their worries temporarily to celebrate this magnificent achievement. The animals are all congratulated by Napoleon. Two days later, he calls them to a meeting and announces that the wood is to be sold to Frederick. The animals are astonished, but Squealer easily explains this away as part of Napoleon’s strategy, to appear friendly with one neighbour while secretly courting the other. The sale goes ahead, and the solicitor organizes the transport of the wood off the farm, and the delivery of the banknotes to Napoleon. Three days later, the notes are discovered to be forgeries. Napoleon assembles the animals again and pronounces the death sentence on Frederick. At the same time, he warns them that Frederick and his men may be about to attack the farm. The attack comes the next morning. Fifteen men, six with guns, approach the farm, and the battle is joined. The animals are driven back to the farm buildings. While they are trapped there, the men plant dynamite around the windmill. In the ensuing explosion, the windmill is obliterated. The animals react to this by forgetting all about the guns and charging headlong at the men, who after a brief struggle, run for their lives. The animals are dejected at the loss of the windmill, but the pigs quickly set about the task of rebuilding morale by reminding them of the magnificent victory they have won. The day will be forever commemorated as the Battle of the Windmill. In the ensuing celebrations, the forged banknotes are forgotten.
Rebuilding of the windmill begins immediately after the celebrations. Boxer works harder than ever, despite carrying an injury from the battle. His thoughts are now turning to retirement, for which, under the laws of Animal farm, he is due the next year. Napoleon now introduces a weekly event called the Spontaneous Demonstration, where every animal would leave their work to march in military procession around the farm, so as to instill pride in the animals in the achievements of the farm since the rebellion. It comforts the animals to know that, no matter how hard their lives, at least they have the benefit of being their own masters. The building work around the farm continues through the summer, heavily dependent on the extraordinary efforts of Boxer. He is showing some signs at this stage that his strength is failing. One summer evening, he collapses. All the animals rush to his side, unable to bear the thought that anything might happen to him. He barely has the strength to get back to his feet and to struggle back to his stall. Squealer promises to send him to the town so that the veterinary surgeon can treat him. Clover and Benjamin spend as much time as they can over the next few days nursing him. Then, while the animals are all at work, the van comes to take Boxer away. The animals rush to the yard in time to see the van begin to pull away. They start to wave goodbye to Boxer, but Benjamin is very agitated, and tells them to read the letters on the van. Muriel reads out the sign on the van, which describes the van as belonging to the local horse-slaughterer. The animals try to warn Boxer, who tries to kick his way out of the van, but he has no strength. Three days later, Squealer announces that Boxer died in the hospital. He makes a moving speech in praise of Boxer. He explains the sign on the van by saying that the veterinary
surgeon bought the van from the horse-slaughterer, and had not yet replaced the sign. The animals are very relieved to hear this, and are greatly consoled by Squealer’s further descriptions of the wonderful care and treatment that Boxer received in his final hours.
Napoleon pays his respects to Boxer at the meeting on the following Sunday, attended only by the pigs.
Years have passed, and many of the animals are dead. Only Clover, Benjamin, Moses and some of the pigs remember the days before the rebellion. Clover is by now very old, well past retirement age, except that no animal has actually managed to retire yet. The windmill has finally been completed. It is used for milling corn, rather than for generating electricity, and brings a good profit to the farm. Another windmill is now being built to generate electricity. There is no more talk of the three-day week, or any of the other luxuries that Snowball originally promised would accrue from the windmill. The farm is growing richer, but the animals themselves do not seem to benefit much from it. There are many pigs and dogs on the farm now. The pigs are all involved in the bureaucracy of running the farm, and are not available to do any actual work, though Squealer makes it clear to the others that what the pigs do is of vital importance to the farm.
One day, the pigs invite a number of the local farmers to inspect the farm. After the inspection, the pigs and the farmers return to the farmhouse for a celebration. After a time, loud noises of laughter and singing are heard through the windows. The other animals are overcome with curiosity, and they approach the farmhouse to see what is going on. They look through the windows to see the pigs and farmers seated around the living room table, playing cards, making speeches and congratulating one another. Mr. Pilkington makes a speech telling the pigs how impressed he is with Animal Farm, especially with the hard work and poor rations of the farm animals. Napoleon makes a speech in return, expressing his happiness that the mistrust between Animal Farm and the others is now at an end. He furthermore announces that the animals will cease to address each other as “Comrade,” and that “Animal Farm” will now revert to being called “Manor Farm.” As Napoleon finishes his speech to great applause, the animals outside seem to notice something changing in the features of the pigs, but what?
As the applause dies down and the card game is resumed, the animals creep away from the window. However, they hurry back when they hear a furious argument break out. The argument is because Mr. Pilkington and Napoleon have both played an Ace of Spades at the same time. But as the animals look from Napoleon to Pilkington, from man to pig and from pig back to man, they find that they are unable to tell the difference.
ANIMAL FARM IN CONNECTION TO GHANA
The situation in Animal Farm can be likened to the fight of independence by our dear country (Ghana) who was under the oppression of their colonial masters (the British). Old Major can be compared to Dr. Kwame Nkrumah who was one of the governed. He stood out of the lot and with the help of others decided to fight for the freedom and liberty of the governed. He made the natives to realize that the British were only using them for trade and for their selfish gains which were against human rights. Base on this realization our forefathers stood and fought against their colonial masters until they achieved independence. As Manor Farm was changed to Animal Farm likewise Gold Coast was also changed to Ghana.
Since 1957, the Republic of Ghana has gone through a variety of governments that all preached of a stable and vibrant economy that will surpass that of its former colonial masters. Out of the four Republics that Ghana has gone through not even one has been able to hit the fifty percent (50%) mark of economic stability and the vibrancy that it promised the people when it was pleading to switch seats from the governed to govern.
Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana had a glassy ray of light in his mind for his people but the taste of power made him much more than a human being. Despite his contributions on obtaining a significant improvement in the country’s economy and social growth, his distasteful acts as history says outweighed his good deeds.(Absolute power corrupts absolutely) and led to his abrupt end of service when he was overthrown in 1966 by a military unit. Since then, Ghana’s sovereignty has been gambled by military and democratic governments.
At present, political parties mount platforms to state publicly the dreams and aspirations they have for the country. They promise quality healthcare, comfy economic environment, an increase in jobs among others to get the peoples vote. After power has entered them the tide turns upside down. The promises are vanished into the thin air. The good ones are kicked out with all sorts of accusations and the bad heralded into office. Sadly enough, our leaders are able strategize into using some people in the country. These people like the youth representatives of the government in power, information ministers, some journalists and many others. These people get close to the people in order to persuade them to believe in the government who in the real sense is not helping the people just like Squealer in Animal Farm.
Political parties are now back biting each other but the saddest thing is that when they emerge as governors they go back to the same policies they criticized about the other when they were in opposition. Now, there is no difference between the political parties. They just criticize to paint the other black in the sight of the people and when power is given to them they adopt the same policies. Just like the way the animals could not see the difference between the pigs, their so called leaders and the human beings so is the way the governed people of Ghana are not seeing the difference between the political parties.
WHAT TYPE OF BOOK IS ANIMAL FARM?
It is an animal story written for adults. It is not so different from Watership Down or Dunction Wood. There are in fact, some similarities between all three- the most obvious being that in these books animals are given many of the characteristics of humans. The most significant thing about Animal Farm is that it is an allegory. An allegory is similar to a fable in that the story has two levels of meaning. In a fable the writer may use animal characters to make a point about human behaviour. An allegory is read and enjoyed for its surface meaning as well as for its more significant underlying meaning. Other important stories which are also allegories are Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift and The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan. Animal Farm takes events and ideas which might be thought abstract and theoretical and makes them concrete, readily understandable and entertaining. It makes a simple tale of rebellion on a farm into a complex story with a powerful message.
WHAT THE ALLEGORY IS ABOUT.
It is not just a story bout animals rebelling against the farmer and setting their own farm. It is about Russian Revolution of 1917 and the history of that country in the half century following. It is about what happen to ordinary people when other people have power over them and what happens to people when they get absolute power over others.
The Russian revolution overthrew the Tsar (Emperor) in 1917. The Russian Empire was replaced by a state run on communist principles called Soviet Union. In it, the workers and peasants, who had no power in the old system and had been badly treated for centuries were supposed to have power themselves. That was the ideal.
Those in power in other countries were scared by this event. What if their workers seized power? What if the ideas of the Russian revolution spread? The revolution was followed by a civil war between the new government (the Reds) and the supporters of the Tsar (the Whites). Foreign (including Britain) sent troops into Russian to help the Whites but in the end, they were beaten. The leader of the Red army, (Trotsky), the man largely responsible for the defeat of the Whites, the other main leader was a man called Lenin.
In the years that followed the Soviet Union tried to modernize and industrialize, it also sought to make its agriculture more efficient and to do away with the class of land owners by collectivization. There were many disagreements in the ruling communist party about how it should best be done. Eventually, after the death of Lenin in 1924, Stalin emerged as leader. Trotsky, who differed from Stalin on many issues, was exiled from the Soviet Union and later murdered in exile.
Stalin wanted to industrialize the Soviet Union whatever the cost to the Soviet people. He also pursued a policy of establishing communism in the Soviet Union alone, rather than trying to get other countries to have revolutions too, which was Trotsky’s policy. Many ordinary Soviet citizens suffered during these years from the enforced labour on industrial projects and from food shortage which were partly due to the harsh way collectivization was carried out.
Stalin grew increasingly powerful and would not tolerate any opposition. People who disagreed with him- even those in high positions and who had fought with Trotsky and Lenin in the revolution- were either exiled to labour camps in Siberia or killed. Stalin became increasingly paranoid- he suspected almost everyone of plotting against him and thousands of people were arrested and tried and executed for crimes they did not commit.
In 1936, the Soviet Union’s greatest enemy, Germany (under Hitler) made a non-aggression pact with the soviet government. This meant that the Soviet Union was not involved in the first two years of the Second World War. However, in 1941 Hitler attacked the Soviet Union and conquered vast areas. In a bitter campaign in which millions of Russians died, the Germany army was eventually pushed back in 1945. The Soviet Union joined the Britain, France and the USA (amongst others) as the victors of the Second World War. There was some improvement after the death of Stalin in 1953 when many of the labour camps were closed but not until the late1980 were there any signs of deeper changes.
SUMMARY OF THE BOOK- ANIMAL FARM.
After the drunken farmer Jones has gone to bed, all the animals of the farm assemble for a meeting. The meeting has been called by Old Major, a boar who is the oldest and wisest animal on the farm who had a dream and wanted to communicate it to them. In his speech, de drew the attention of the animals to their miserable, laborious and short lives “…our lives are miserable, laborious and short”. He attributed this as the cause of man. He painted man as their enemy and suggested that if their enemy is taken away, their miserable, laborious and short lives would be over “ only get rid of man , and the produce of our labour would be our own”. He urges the animals to fight the humans at every turn, and tells them that rebellion is the only possible solution to their situation and also urges them to pass the message of rebellion to those who come after them.
Old Major finally gets around to telling them about his dream, but the first thing he tells them is that he cannot describe the dream, except to say that it reminded him of a song that he learned in his youth called “Beasts of England.” He sings the song, which tells of the day when Man is finally overthrown, when there is no more slavery or cruelty, and when the animals are finally free. The animals in the barn respond rapturously to this, and sang it through together five times in succession, until they are interrupted by a blast from the farmer’s shotgun. The farm quickly returns to normality.
Old Major dies three days later. The animals set out to prepare for the rebellion. The pigs, being the most intelligent animals on the farm, take the lead on this. The task of working Old Major’s ideas into a more formal system falls to three pigs, Napoleon, Snowball and Squealer. These three organize regular night time meetings with the other animals to explain the principles of their system, called Animalism. Without any planning, the rebellion happens on Midsummer’s day, just before harvest. Farmer Jones gets hopelessly drunk the night before, and neglects to milk the cows or feed the animals all day. One of the cows breaks down a door to the store-shed, and several of the animals begin to help themselves from the bins. Jones now awakes and seeing this, he and his four farm hands begin whipping the animals out of the store-shed. The animals attack the humans spontaneously and furiously. They shocked men react by almost immediately running down the laneway and fleeing the farm. The farm now belongs to the animals.
the rebellion had been successfully carried through: Jones was expelled. Snowball, Napoleon together with the animals changed the Manor farm to Animal Farm; they reduced the principles of Animalism into seven commandments;
1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.
2. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.
3. No animal shall wear clothes.
4. No animal shall sleep in a bed.
5. No animal shall drink alcohol.
6. No animal shall kill any other animal.
7. All animals are equal.
After the rebellion all the animals worked diligently according to their capacity. As the weeks go by, it becomes clear that Napoleon and Snowball rarely agree about anything. Snowball puts all his energies into forming various committees, each of which is responsible for improving some or other aspect of life on the farm. Napoleon sees no value in this, and prefers to concentrate on educating the young. For example, when two of the dogs have litters, Napoleon takes the puppies away from their mothers and secludes them in an inaccessible part of the farm, so that he can educate them properly in the principles of Animalism. Snowball reduces the seven commandments to the single maxim “Four legs good, two legs bad!” which they can remember more easily. The pigs issued a decree stating that all windfall apples are to be gathered up and given over for the exclusive use of the pigs. Some of the animals are puzzled by this, and wonder why the apples are not to be shared out equally. Squealer goes before them to explain. He tells them that the pigs, as the leaders, must keep their brainpower up, and that science has proven that milk and apples are essential for this. Squealer goes on to remind them that the alternative to the pigs is to have Farmer Jones back. This settles the animals, who agree that, whatever happens, they never want to live under Jones again.
Snowball and Napoleon are sending pigeons to neighbouring farms and beyond, to tell the animals about the rebellion. News of the rebellion has spread to the surrounding county. The farmers at first pretend not to be troubled about the rebellion, believing that the animals cannot possibly make a success of the farm. But as time passes the farmers become more and more troubled, and their animals become more and more emboldened. The tune of Beasts of England is now known by nearly every animal in the county. The farmers were thoroughly frightened by the rebellion on Animal Farm and very anxious to prevent their own animals from learning too much about it.
Early in October, Jones, all his men, and half a dozen others from the neighbouring farms, attack Animal Farm with the objective of getting the farm back. Jones and his men were once again defeated by the defensive operations of Snowball. The animals celebrate their victory. The flag is raised, Beasts of England is sung. A medal for “Animal Hero, First Class and Second Class” is created, and awarded to Snowball and a sheep that died when Jones fired his gun.
With the land now frozen solid, it is impossible to do any farming. A lot of time is spent on meetings of all the animals in the big barn, where the future policy for the farm is discussed and voted on. The divisions between Snowball and Napoleon are becoming more pronounced, and it seems that they now oppose each other on every proposal. Snowball’s eloquence allows him to control the meetings, However, Napoleon works quietly behind the scenes building support, and succeeding in getting all of the sheep onto his side.
Snowball is forever proposing new plans and schemes for the improvement of the farm, all of which are opposed by Napoleon. Snowball’s most ambitious plan is for the construction of a windmill, which he says can provide heat and electricity to the farm.
Napoleon is completely against the idea, and makes his opposition clear. Snowball continues to work on his plans. The day comes when all the animals will gather in the big barn to vote on whether or not the windmill will be built. The farm is divided into two factions at this stage, the “Vote for Snowball and the three-day week” faction, and the “Vote for Napoleon and the full manger” faction. Snowball has convinced his faction that the windmill will lead to increased leisure time for everybody, while Napoleon has convinced his faction that the distraction of the windmill will cause the animals to lose time on the harvest and starve.
The meeting begins. The sheep heckle Snowball as he explains his plans for the windmill, and why it will be good for the farm. Napoleon then rises and gives a very brief and curt address, advising everyone to vote against the windmill. Snowball then speaks again. He talks passionately and eloquently, and creates a vision of a mechanized farm with heat and light, with electrical threshers and ploughs and reapers, where the animals do little or no work. It is clear that Snowball will win the vote.
Just then, Napoleon stands and emits a queer sound, a kind of whimper. At this signal, nine huge dogs, rush into the barn and charge at Snowball. They chase him from the barn and off the farm. He is never seen again.
The other animals, who had left the barn to watch the chase, now return to the barn, where Napoleon addresses them. He tells them that Sunday Meetings are henceforth abolished, and that all decisions in future will be taken solely by the pigs. Any dissent is silenced by growls from the dogs, and the meeting finishes to a fifteen-minute chorus of “Four legs good, two legs bad” from the sheep. Squealer follows up in the aftermath, explaining to the shocked animals of the farm that Napoleon has taken on the leadership with great reluctance and with great sacrifice to himself. The animals are soon won over when they are reminded of what life was like under Jones.
Three weeks after this fateful meeting, Napoleon announces that the Windmill will now be built. The animals are warned that this will mean lots of extra hard work, and a reduction in their rations. Another year passes. The animals work themselves to the bone on the harvest and on the windmill, all under the supervision of the pigs. The animals are asked to work on Sunday afternoons as well, on a voluntary basis, though any animal that did not work on Sunday had their rations halved. Progress on the windmill is laborious and slow. The stones with which it is to be built have to be hauled to the top of the quarry and thrown from there to the bottom, so that the stones can be broken into the appropriate sizes.
Napoleon announces one day that Animal Farm will henceforth enter into trading arrangements with some of the surrounding farms. Hay and wheat from the farm will be sold, and the hens are told that they will have to give up some of their eggs, a sacrifice that they should be proud to make. Some of the animals are doubtful about this move, seeming to remember an agreement in the early days after the rebellion never to have anything to do with humans. Squealer puts any doubts to rest in the following days, informing them that such a resolution was never written down.
From then on, Napoleon engages a local solicitor to act as the middleman between Animal Farm and the outside world. The solicitor comes every Monday, and his presence makes the other animals very uneasy, but their doubts are eased by their pride in seeing Napoleon give orders to a human.
Shortly afterwards, the pigs move into the farmhouse. They eat in the kitchen, relax in the drawing room, and even sleep in the beds. Some of the animals are very doubtful about this. Clover consults the seven commandments on the gable wall, and asks Muriel to read out the fourth commandment, which states, “No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets.” Muriel cannot remember sheets being mentioned before. However, helped by the smooth words of Squealer, she assumes that she must have been wrong; she and the other animals accept his argument that the pigs, as the leaders, must have as much comfort as possible to facilitate their brainwork.
The work on the windmill continues. The animals are all extremely proud of their progress so far, except for Benjamin, who expresses no opinion for or against the windmill. By November, the windmill is half finished. However, disaster strikes when a night time storm destroys it. Napoleon is silent for a long time, before making the sudden and dramatic announcement that the windmill was destroyed by Snowball. Some pig footprints leading away from the farm are discovered, and Napoleon confirms them to belong to Snowball. The other animals are shocked that their former leader could do such a thing. Napoleon announces that work on rebuilding the windmill will commence immediately.
At a Sunday meeting, Squealer announces that the hens must give up their eggs, so that they can be traded with the outside world for grain and meal. The hens are stunned into rebellion. They take to laying their eggs from the rafters of the coop, allowing them to smash to the ground. The pigs respond by stopping their rations completely, and threatening death on any other animals that shares their food with them. Eventually the hens relent, and they are forced to give up their eggs as soon as they are laid. All the while, the pigs spread terrible rumours about Snowball. Every mishap and misfortune on the farm was now attributed to Snowball.
An assembly of all the animals in the yard is now called. Napoleon, who now rarely leaves the farmhouse, and is never without his escort of dogs, stands before them. At a signal, the dogs charge into the crowd and drag four of the more troublesome pigs before Napoleon. At the same time, three of the dogs attach Boxer. Boxer easily fends them off. The miserable pigs are forced to confess to having been in league with Snowball, and are murdered on the spot by the dogs. Other animals come forward to confess various crimes against the farm, and each in turn is slaughtered. These are the first killings of other animals since the rebellion. The animals creep away from the meeting. Boxer, in trying to understand why this has happened, resolves that the only possible solution is to work harder. Clover, not as strong but more intelligent, has deep misgivings about what she has seen, but she cannot put them into words. She remains faithful to Napoleon, but deep down she knows that this state of affairs was not what they fought for in the rebellion. Squealer now tells the animals that the song is henceforth abolished. It is to be replaced with a song called Animal Farm, composed by one of the pigs. The animals take up the new song faithfully, but are aware that it does not compare to Beasts of England.
Squealer exhorts them to greater efforts, telling them that productivity on the farm has improved enormously since the rebellion, though many of the animals secretly feel hungry. Napoleon, who is now known as “Our Leader, Comrade Napoleon,” now employs a cockerel as a herald, as well as being accompanied at all times by his dogs. Relations between the neighbouring farms, Frederick of Pinchfield and Pilkington of Foxwood, remain complex. Napoleon, through the middleman, has been trying to sell off a pile of timber to one of the other neighbour. At this time, rumours abound that Frederick is about to attack the farm. A plot to murder Napoleon is uncovered. Three hens confess that Snowball, said to be living on Pinchfield, put them up to it. The hens are executed.
The windmill is completed by autumn. The animals forget their worries temporarily to celebrate this magnificent achievement. The animals are all congratulated by Napoleon. Two days later, he calls them to a meeting and announces that the wood is to be sold to Frederick. The animals are astonished, but Squealer easily explains this away as part of Napoleon’s strategy, to appear friendly with one neighbour while secretly courting the other. The sale goes ahead, and the solicitor organizes the transport of the wood off the farm, and the delivery of the banknotes to Napoleon. Three days later, the notes are discovered to be forgeries. Napoleon assembles the animals again and pronounces the death sentence on Frederick. At the same time, he warns them that Frederick and his men may be about to attack the farm. The attack comes the next morning. Fifteen men, six with guns, approach the farm, and the battle is joined. The animals are driven back to the farm buildings. While they are trapped there, the men plant dynamite around the windmill. In the ensuing explosion, the windmill is obliterated. The animals react to this by forgetting all about the guns and charging headlong at the men, who after a brief struggle, run for their lives. The animals are dejected at the loss of the windmill, but the pigs quickly set about the task of rebuilding morale by reminding them of the magnificent victory they have won. The day will be forever commemorated as the Battle of the Windmill. In the ensuing celebrations, the forged banknotes are forgotten.
Rebuilding of the windmill begins immediately after the celebrations. Boxer works harder than ever, despite carrying an injury from the battle. His thoughts are now turning to retirement, for which, under the laws of Animal farm, he is due the next year. Napoleon now introduces a weekly event called the Spontaneous Demonstration, where every animal would leave their work to march in military procession around the farm, so as to instill pride in the animals in the achievements of the farm since the rebellion. It comforts the animals to know that, no matter how hard their lives, at least they have the benefit of being their own masters. The building work around the farm continues through the summer, heavily dependent on the extraordinary efforts of Boxer. He is showing some signs at this stage that his strength is failing. One summer evening, he collapses. All the animals rush to his side, unable to bear the thought that anything might happen to him. He barely has the strength to get back to his feet and to struggle back to his stall. Squealer promises to send him to the town so that the veterinary surgeon can treat him. Clover and Benjamin spend as much time as they can over the next few days nursing him. Then, while the animals are all at work, the van comes to take Boxer away. The animals rush to the yard in time to see the van begin to pull away. They start to wave goodbye to Boxer, but Benjamin is very agitated, and tells them to read the letters on the van. Muriel reads out the sign on the van, which describes the van as belonging to the local horse-slaughterer. The animals try to warn Boxer, who tries to kick his way out of the van, but he has no strength. Three days later, Squealer announces that Boxer died in the hospital. He makes a moving speech in praise of Boxer. He explains the sign on the van by saying that the veterinary
surgeon bought the van from the horse-slaughterer, and had not yet replaced the sign. The animals are very relieved to hear this, and are greatly consoled by Squealer’s further descriptions of the wonderful care and treatment that Boxer received in his final hours.
Napoleon pays his respects to Boxer at the meeting on the following Sunday, attended only by the pigs.
Years have passed, and many of the animals are dead. Only Clover, Benjamin, Moses and some of the pigs remember the days before the rebellion. Clover is by now very old, well past retirement age, except that no animal has actually managed to retire yet. The windmill has finally been completed. It is used for milling corn, rather than for generating electricity, and brings a good profit to the farm. Another windmill is now being built to generate electricity. There is no more talk of the three-day week, or any of the other luxuries that Snowball originally promised would accrue from the windmill. The farm is growing richer, but the animals themselves do not seem to benefit much from it. There are many pigs and dogs on the farm now. The pigs are all involved in the bureaucracy of running the farm, and are not available to do any actual work, though Squealer makes it clear to the others that what the pigs do is of vital importance to the farm.
One day, the pigs invite a number of the local farmers to inspect the farm. After the inspection, the pigs and the farmers return to the farmhouse for a celebration. After a time, loud noises of laughter and singing are heard through the windows. The other animals are overcome with curiosity, and they approach the farmhouse to see what is going on. They look through the windows to see the pigs and farmers seated around the living room table, playing cards, making speeches and congratulating one another. Mr. Pilkington makes a speech telling the pigs how impressed he is with Animal Farm, especially with the hard work and poor rations of the farm animals. Napoleon makes a speech in return, expressing his happiness that the mistrust between Animal Farm and the others is now at an end. He furthermore announces that the animals will cease to address each other as “Comrade,” and that “Animal Farm” will now revert to being called “Manor Farm.” As Napoleon finishes his speech to great applause, the animals outside seem to notice something changing in the features of the pigs, but what?
As the applause dies down and the card game is resumed, the animals creep away from the window. However, they hurry back when they hear a furious argument break out. The argument is because Mr. Pilkington and Napoleon have both played an Ace of Spades at the same time. But as the animals look from Napoleon to Pilkington, from man to pig and from pig back to man, they find that they are unable to tell the difference.
ANIMAL FARM IN CONNECTION TO GHANA
The situation in Animal Farm can be likened to the fight of independence by our dear country (Ghana) who was under the oppression of their colonial masters (the British). Old Major can be compared to Dr. Kwame Nkrumah who was one of the governed. He stood out of the lot and with the help of others decided to fight for the freedom and liberty of the governed. He made the natives to realize that the British were only using them for trade and for their selfish gains which were against human rights. Base on this realization our forefathers stood and fought against their colonial masters until they achieved independence. As Manor Farm was changed to Animal Farm likewise Gold Coast was also changed to Ghana.
Since 1957, the Republic of Ghana has gone through a variety of governments that all preached of a stable and vibrant economy that will surpass that of its former colonial masters. Out of the four Republics that Ghana has gone through not even one has been able to hit the fifty percent (50%) mark of economic stability and the vibrancy that it promised the people when it was pleading to switch seats from the governed to govern.
Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana had a glassy ray of light in his mind for his people but the taste of power made him much more than a human being. Despite his contributions on obtaining a significant improvement in the country’s economy and social growth, his distasteful acts as history says outweighed his good deeds.(Absolute power corrupts absolutely) and led to his abrupt end of service when he was overthrown in 1966 by a military unit. Since then, Ghana’s sovereignty has been gambled by military and democratic governments.
At present, political parties mount platforms to state publicly the dreams and aspirations they have for the country. They promise quality healthcare, comfy economic environment, an increase in jobs among others to get the peoples vote. After power has entered them the tide turns upside down. The promises are vanished into the thin air. The good ones are kicked out with all sorts of accusations and the bad heralded into office. Sadly enough, our leaders are able strategize into using some people in the country. These people like the youth representatives of the government in power, information ministers, some journalists and many others. These people get close to the people in order to persuade them to believe in the government who in the real sense is not helping the people just like Squealer in Animal Farm.
Political parties are now back biting each other but the saddest thing is that when they emerge as governors they go back to the same policies they criticized about the other when they were in opposition. Now, there is no difference between the political parties. They just criticize to paint the other black in the sight of the people and when power is given to them they adopt the same policies. Just like the way the animals could not see the difference between the pigs, their so called leaders and the human beings so is the way the governed people of Ghana are not seeing the difference between the political parties.
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