COMMUNICATION RESEARCH METHODS

A) WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC STUDY?
George A. Lundberg defines science as “a technique of deriving reliable knowledge about any type of phenomenon in the universe and then applying this derived knowledge for purposes of prediction and control”. Science derived from the Latin origin “scientia” which means knowledge acquired through a study. When a study or a process is set towards science then it could be labeled as a scientific study. Roger D. Winner and Joseph R. Dominick in their book Mass Media Research 5th edition, kerlinger (1986) defines scientific research as “a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among observed phenomena”. Tom K.B Kumekpor in his book Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research defines scientific study as “the general term describing the spirit and method of all science.” These basically refer to certain distinctive rules of a procedure and mental framework within which any work of scientific nature may be carried out. It includes the steps through which such an exercise must pass, the rules of procedures, the mental and intellectual framework within which such work should be carried out.
There are four basic characteristics of scientific study. Any study or research process which does not possess these characteristics cannot be viewed as scientific study. The first characteristic of communication research is empiricism. This means that communication research is based on observation. Researchers must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to reject metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. Empiricism also talks of the predictive and objective nature of communication research. It is also predictive, in the sense that it relates the present to the future. Communication research is objective since it tries to rule out peculiarities of judgment by researchers. Objectivity also requires that communication research deals with facts rather than interpretations.
Secondly, scientific study is theoretical. This means that communication research attempts to summarize difficult observation and intangible logical related preposition which implies to explain casual relations in the subject matter.
Moreover, scientific study is systematic and cumulative in nature. Cumulative in that theories are build upon one another with new theories approving, broadening, and challenging the odd ones. It goes through a laid down procedures and each stage builds the knowledge acquired from the immediate stages. “No single research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself”.
Lastly, scientific study is non-ethical. This is to say that social scientist do not ask whether a particular social actions are good or bad. They simply seek to explain the social actions.
Notwithstanding all these characteristics of scientific study or research, it approaches learning as a series of small steps. That is one study or one source provides only an indication of what may or may not be true. The “truth” is found only through a series of objective analysis. Scientific study or method is self correcting, in that changes in thought or theory are appropriate when errors in previous research are uncovered.
Scientific study is therefore concerned with
• Observation (collection of data)
• Classification of data collected ( group or ungroup)
• Organization of data (charts, tables or maps)
• Measurements of data (precise units, level of measurement, nominal , ordinal, intervals and ratios)
• Hypothesis (testable statements about observed phenomenon or expected outcome)
• Analyses, interpretation and summary of data ( diagnosis through the use of techniques such as mode, mean, median and quartels)
• Predictions ( possible outcome, result or prognosis)
To sum it all up, any research or knowledge acquired which does not go through the scientific method of inquiry and does not possess the characteristics of a scientific study cannot be labeled as such.

(B) HOW DOES IT DIFFER FROM MYTHOLOGY
Scientific study and mythology are all categories of knowledge but both knowledge’s are differently built in terms of definition, characteristics and structure (mode of appearance).
Scientific study as defined by Tom K.B Kumekpor (2002) in his book Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research implies “the particular procedures and logic, systematically and rigorously applied to the observation, collection, classification, analysis and interpretation of empirical data”. Mythology on the other hand refers to knowledge that is concerned with personal belief, experience or perception. A clear distinction is even created in both definitions.
Secondly, in terms of characteristics scientific study is concerned with empiricism, theoretical, cumulative and non-ethical. All these characteristics of scientific study subject it to fortification and verification. This is well explained in the statement made by Nunnally (1994) “a key principle of science is that, any statement or fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by another scientist”. Mythology, on the other hand is morally based, filled with personal values and therefore lacks fortification and verification. It is usually subjected to individual or personal judgment or value.
Thirdly, scientific study follows laid down procedures – observation, classification, organization, measurement, hypothesis, analysis/interpretation/summary and predictions. In the case of mythology, it does not follow any laid down procedures.
In conclusion, it could be noticed that although both scientific study and mythology are knowledge based, they differ in the sense of definition, characteristics and structure.


BRIEFLY EXPLAIN THE RATIONALE FOR COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science that adapts systematic approach in solving social phenomenon. Research involves procedures which normally go through a kind of process that ensures that the scientific method is utilized. There are seven inter- related activities involved in the procedures.
• Generating a research problem.
• Constructing hypothesis.
• Establishing research objectives.
• Identifying research methodology.
• Methods of data collection
• Analysis of data
• Formulation of empirical generalization
Though each research study has it own specific purpose the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and not yet discovered. The specific purpose of research could be identified in the following broad areas.
 Exploratory or formulatory research
In exploratory research the purpose is to gain familiarity with the phenomenon, to minimize the mistakes and bias in the process of answering questions and to move beyond ideal curiosity into formulating questions.
 Descriptive research.
The purpose of descriptive research is to portray precisely the uniqueness of a particular individual, situation or a group or to create a link among otherwise desperate sources of information. It also seeks to communicate effectively ideas either by written or spoken to other people.
 Diagnostic research
Diagnostic research seeks to test competing interpretations of events against one another, so that a best account of the same phenomenon can be isolated.
 Testing research (hypothesis)
The main rationale behind testing research is to test a hypothesis of an underlying relationship between variables and also to use qualitative and quantitative skills to solve problems.
The above points clearly state the rationale behind every communication research.


(A) IS THERE ANY CORRELATION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE
To some extent there is a high degree of correlation between science and knowledge. Good and Hatt define science as “an accumulation of systematic knowledge.” Radcliffe Brown also defines science as a body of knowledge existing at a certain moment of the time”. George A. Lundberg defines science as “a technique of deriving reliable knowledge about any type of phenomena in the universe and then applying this derived knowledge for purposes of prediction and control.” The basic element common to all three definitions is knowledge. Knowledge according to Longman dictionary is “the fact or condition of knowing somebody or something through experience or association”. In other words “an acquaintance with, understanding or awareness of something.”
Science derived from a Latin origin “scientia” which means “knowledge acquired through a study”. Science is about knowledge, without knowledge there is no science. Knowledge is the basis of all science. If there is no knowledge then science would not exist.
Also, when there is knowledge about a particular phenomenon, a problem can then be generated. When this problem is generated, it then goes through the process of science (scientific method). So, without the initial knowledge about that phenomenon, issue of science would not be identified.
The four types of science that is physical, formal, meteorological and social are all generated based on knowledge. It could be noticed that, every aspect of science is base on knowledge. Knowledge is what makes science.
Finally, there is some extent of correlation between science and knowledge since knowledge is the basis of all sciences.

(B) EXPLAIN THE SIGNIFICANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Scientific communication research is an aspect of social science which adapt a systematic approach in solving social problems. The essence of scientific communication research is that it is based on the scientific method of enquiry. Successful scientific communication research result from clear mind attacking a clearly stated problem and producing clearly stated conclusions.
The main essence of scientific Communication Research is to discover new facts. Using the new facts, there is confirmation, revision, or rejection of existing theory and accepted practices. Scientific Communication Research therefore analyzes the result of studious inquiry into a problem that might nave arisen out of a felt need in science or society. Through scientific communication research, new facts are derived to explain a phenomenon on any discipline.
Secondly, scientific Communication Research helps in the formulation of theoretical and methodological problems. Through scientific communication research theories and methods are developed. These theories and methods help to formulate problem and then solve problems generated. When problems emanate, people turn to ask questions such as: what are the causes of a particular phenomenon? What are the consequences of street children on the development of a nation? When these problems are generated, communication research then creates theories and methods to solve the problem.
Scientific Communication Research aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing knowledge. Thus, it helps to expand existence perception in a system by identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. There is an instinct of inquisitiveness in every individual, due to this when one faces a situation or problem, the person probe and attains full understanding of the problem or situation. Thus, through scientific Communication Research one obtains additional information to enrich his or her existing knowledge. For example, a typical traditionalist would see a societal problem been caused by angered gods or ancestors but through communication research one’s perception is broadened to know the causation of that societal problem as a social or political factor.
Scientific Communication Research provides vital techniques for future research workers. This aids other researchers to find out what methods and procedures have been used, what literature has been covered and what contributions have been made by the previous researcher. This in a way helps other researchers not to repeat the same methods or procedures used by another researcher in solving a particular phenomenon or problem. Nunnally (1994) said “a key principle about science is that any statement of fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by other scientist.” This is to say that no research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself.
Apart from it providing vital techniques for future research it also serves as an effective form of training in scientific and social investigation. It helps the researcher to develop his or her critical faculties. As an individual goes through a series of step to step process, his or her faculties is developed critically and also enable one to deal with social phenomenon in terms of research.
There are four main characteristics of communication research.
The first characteristic of communication research is empiricism. This means that communication research is based on observation. Researchers must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to reject metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. Empiricism also talks of the predictive and objective nature of communication research. Predictive, in the sense that it relates the present to the future. Communication research is also objective since it tries to rule out peculiarity of judgment by researchers. Objectivity also requires that scientific study deals with facts rather than interpretations.
Also, communication research is theoretical. This means that communication research attempts to summarize complex observation and abstract logical related preposition which implies to explain informal relations in the subject matter.
Moreover, communication research is systematic and cumulative in nature. Cumulative in that theories build upon one another with new theories correcting, extending, and challenging or defying the old ones. It goes through a laid down procedures and each stage builds the knowledge acquired from the immediate stages. “No single research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself”.
Lastly, communication research is non-ethical. This is to say that social scientist do not ask whether a particular social actions are good or bad. They merely seek to explain the social actions.
In conclusion, the above stated points clearly depict the significance and characteristics of communication research.


(A) WHAT ARE THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS?
Scientific method is “a general term describing the spirit and method of all sciences”. That is, the way of doing things the scientific way. (Tom K.B Kumepkor, 2002). This basically refers to certain distinctive rules of procedure and mental framework within which work of any scientific nature may be carried out.
Tentatively, we can identify the following as the basic elements as well as stages in the scientific method.
The first stage is observation. During this stage, data is collected from the observation. When an investigator has clearly defined the particular problem area of his investigations he is ready to embark upon the observation stage of his research design. In order to acquire first hand knowledge of a particular phenomenon, one has to in one way or the other, observe the phenomenon. Observation brings the investigator into contact, in one way or the other, with the phenomenon being studied. In this way, it becomes an effective means of recording what is observed more precisely and with a greater reliability because careful observation directs the attention of the researcher to what to select, what to admit and to what questions are relevant to ask in specific research situations relating to the particular research problem being investigated.
The second stage is classification. Under this stage, the data collected in the observation stage is classified either into groups or ungroup. In the classification stage there is some processing, analyzing and interpretation of data.
Thirdly, the data collected needs to be organized and this brings us to the organization stage. The data classified is now organized into charts, tables or maps.
The fourth stage is the measuring of data organized. The data collected is measured to determine the precise unit, the level of measurement whether nominal, ordinal, ratios and the like.
Formulation of a working hypothesis is the fifth stage. A hypothesis may be considered as a suggested answer to a problem or an assumption made by a researcher to provide him with a guide to the problem he intends to investigate as well as providing him with a restricted focus to direct his attention in the observation stage of his research. From this conception of a hypothesis it should be evident that the term does not, in any way, presuppose a statement or a proposition which has been tested or verified. There is no assumption or proof, truth or validity in a hypothesis thus conceived, on the contrary, such a conception of hypothesis necessitate a clarification or a proof as such a statement or proposition.
Moreover, analyzing, interpretation and summary is the sixth stage. The data is diagnosed through the use of techniques such as mode, mean, median and quartiles.
The final stage of the scientific method is the prediction stage. Possible outcomes, results are forecasted.
In actual practice, the manner in which stages one to seven (1-7) are combined and articulated constitutes the scientific methods. Kenneth Hoover notes an essential point about scientific method which is “the scientific method seeks to test thoughts against reality in a disciplined manner with each step in the process made explicit”.


(B) EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLES THE VARIOUS TYPOLOGIES OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS.
Science derived from the Latin word “scientia” means knowledge acquired through a study. Science is a systematic body of knowledge on any discipline or subject acquired through a logical, careful and objective observation, experimentation and measurement of phenomenon with valid conclusions. There are four broad types of science which are physical, formal, meteorological and social.
Physical science refers to the sciences that have physics, biology, chemistry and astronomy which examines matter, energy and the way the universe behaves.
Formal science is also based on distinctive principles. Examples are logic and mathematics
Meteorological science is the study of the processes that causes a particular condition. For example, weather forecasting.
Social science on the other hand is the type of science that deals with the problems of the society. For example: economical science, sociology, philosophical science and political science.
In conclusion, all the four types of science are all built upon knowledge and could be labeled scientific if the method used for study is a systematic approach.


WHAT IS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH?
Wilbur Schramm refers to communication as “a relationship, an act of sharing messages, or sharing of an orientation towards a set informational science”. Research is also defined by Redman and Mory as “a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. Communication research is therefore, an aspect of social science which solves a problem or question in a systematized way.
There are two main types of communication Research. Basic research and applied research. Basic research is “an original scientific investigation which is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge rather than for immediate gains”. While applied research is an “investigation base on scientific method and with the overt objective of discovering new products and services”. (P.A Twumasi, 1997)
Moreover, communication research involves; developing traditions, that is planning a way to do something, taking out irrelevant things, adhering to scientific rules and interplay of publishing and printing. The author should do well to remember one important fact, which is the title would be read by thousands of people. Therefore all words in the title should be as fewer as possible but adequately describing the context of the work. It also involves an acceptable primary scientific publication. The publication should contain enough information which could easily be reviewed and evaluated. The publication must also be available and subjected to regular screening by one or more of the major recognized services.
Communication research is cyclical. This means that, the methods begins with facts then progresses through theories and predictions and returns to new facts at the end of the cycle and the beginning of the next. Communication research goes through three steps and these are; induction, deduction and verification. The inductive approach is the process where observed facts are used to generate theories consistent of the fact. Deduction is the process whereby a research possesses questions. For instance, what are the consequences of street children?
There is a lot of importance associated with communication research. The main essence of communication research is to discover new facts. One goes into research to get more knowledge or derive basic knowledge about a phenomenon or a problem. These facts are then use in solving problems. Communication research also aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing perception in a system by identifying problems and identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. For example; an illiterate might seen a misfortune to be the cause of angered gods instead of a natural or political cause.
Finally, communication research as a social science answers question in a systematized way. It is an attempt to provide valid answers to the Japanese 5W’s and H, why, who, when, where, what.

(B) EXPLAIN THE RELEVANCE OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.
Communication research is an aspect of social science that adapts a systematic approach to solve social phenomenon.
The main essence of Communication Research is to discover new facts. Using the new facts, there is confirmation, revision, or rejection of existing theory and accepted practices. Communication Research therefore analyzes the result of studious inquiry into a problem that might have arisen out of a felt need in science or society. Through communication research, new facts are derived to explain a phenomenon on any discipline.
Secondly, Communication Research helps in the formulation of theoretical and methodological problems. Through communication research theories and methods are developed. These theories and methods help to formulate problem and then solve problems generated. When problems emanate, people turn to ask questions such as: what are the causes of street children? What are the consequences of street children on the development of a nation? When these problems are generated, communication research then creates theories and methods to solve the problem.
Communication Research aids in obtaining additional information to enrich existing knowledge. Thus, it helps to expand existence perception in a system by identifying problems and finding solutions which are beyond the capability of common sense. There is an instinct of curiosity in every individual, due to this when one faces a situation or problem, the person probe and attains full understanding of the problem or situation. Thus, through Communication Research one obtains additional information to enrich his or her existing knowledge. For example, a typical traditionalist would see a societal problem been caused by angered gods or ancestors but through communication research one’s perception is broadened to know the causation of that societal problem as a social factor or political factor.
Communication Research provides vital techniques for future research workers. This aids other researchers to find out what methods and procedures have been used, what literature has been covered and what contributions have been made by the previous researcher. This in a way helps other researchers not to repeat the same methods or procedures used by another researcher in solving a particular phenomenon or problem. Nunnally (1994) said “a key principle about science is that any statement of fact made by one scientist should be independently verifiable by another scientist.” This is to say that no research study stands alone or does it rise or fall by itself.
Apart from it providing vital techniques for future research it also serves as an effective form of training in scientific and social investigation. It helps the researcher to develop his or her critical faculties. As an individual goes through a series of step to step process, his or her faculties is developed critically and also enable one to deal with social phenomenon in terms of research.
In a nutshell, communication research is associated with a lot relevance which is explained above.

DEFINE THE TERM RESEARCH

A. ORDINARY
B. BROAD PERSPECTIVE
C. ACADEMIC POINT OF VIEW.

“Research is commonly known as the act of searching again or seeking again”. An act which involves the person going out to have a careful look at a phenomenon or a problem. The problem is in existence but a careful look is going to be conducted and this act is commonly referred to as “research”.
In the broad perspective research is considered as any activity whose aim is to find a valid answer to a question that has been raised. To determine the validity of a particular phenomenon, the scientific method of inquiry ought to be used. Broadly speaking, research uses the scientific method to achieve its motive of deriving the validity of a phenomenon.
Research is an art of scientific investigation. Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines research as “a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a (new) understanding.” Tom K.B. Kumepkor (2002) talks of research as “problem- oriented”. That is, it always starts from or is prompted by a question or a problem for which an answer is sought. It involves systematic and usually critical observation of one sort or other. Redman and Mory in their point of view define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.
In the sense of discipline, it is an intense purposeful search for knowledge and understanding of social and physical phenomenon. It is an act which discovers the true nature in a scientific way.


(A) IDENTIFY AND COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE TYPOLOGIES OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH.

Communication research is an aspect of social science which solves a particular phenomenon or problem in a systematic manner. They are two broad types of communication- basic or primary research and applied or policy oriented research.
Basic research as defined by P.A Twumasi (1997) is an “an original scientific investigation which is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge rather than for immediate financial gains”. Applied research on the other hand, is “an investigation base on scientific method and with the overt objective of discovering new products and processes”. (P.A Twumasi, 1997)
Basic and applied researches have one common feature. This feature stems from the fact that both researches are scientific. From both definitions, there is a realization that basic research is a “scientific investigation” and applied research is an investigation base on “scientific method”. Thus both researches are scientific.
Despite the fact that both researches have a common feature, they are different in some ways. Firstly, basic research is undertaken purely for the advancement of knowledge but applied research has an overt objective of discovering new products and services.
Secondly, basic research is not undertaken because of immediate financial gains but for applied research, some of the researches are conducted gearing towards financial gains. Not all applied researches but some.
Lastly, both researches have different methodologies. Applied research is base on scientific method but basic research is not base on any scientific method.
In conclusion, there are two broad types of communication research and these communication researches have their own similarities and differences.



(B) WHAT IS THE MAIN FOCUS OF A COMMUNICATION RESEARCHER?
Communication research as an aspect of social science which uses systematic approach in solving problems or a phenomenon. Any individual who goes into any research of such kind is a communication researcher. A communication researcher therefore focuses on qualitative and descriptive methods.


WHAT DOES THE ACRONYM IMRAD STANDS FOR. HOW RELEVANT IS IT IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH. WHAT DOES COMMUNICATION RESEARCH ENTAIL?

IMRAD is an acronym which stands for introduction, method, results and discussion.
IMRAD is the simplest and most logical way to communicate research results. Most editors chose IMRAD because of its rigidity. It saves space (expense), making life easier for editors and reviewers as well. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in a question form. What question (problem) was studied? – Introduction. How was the problem studied? – Methods. What were the findings? – Results. What do these findings mean? – Discussion.
IMRAD aids in the writing of manuscript. With the help of the IMRAD structure the author easily organizes his information, ideas and these aid him to write his manuscript.
IMRAD also provide easy roadmap for editors, referees. This is to say that, IMRAD provides an easy structure for any piece of work which in a way makes it easy for editors or referees.
It also, helps communicators to follow communication researcher. Base on the logic structure of IMRAD it aids any individual aside the author to follow a piece of work written.
Communication research as an aspect of social science involve developing traditions, editorial practices, scientific ethics and inter- play of printing procedures.
Also, an acceptable primary scientific publication which should be easy for review and evaluation is associated with communication research. The publication should be available and subjected to regular screening by one or more of the major recognized services.
Communication research is also associated with scheming an all- inclusive title. The author should do well to remember one imperative fact that, the title would be read by thousands of people. Therefore all words in the title should be as fewer as possible but adequately describing the context of the work.
In sum, communication research is therefore an attempt to provide answers to the Japanese 5W’s and H, which is what, when, why, where, who and how.


5. EXPLAIN AS CLEARLY THE FOLLOWING
 SYSTEMATIC
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines systematic as “done according to a system or plan, in a thorough, efficient or determined way.” Example of “systematic” in sentences:
(1) A systematic attempt to destroy the organization.
(2) The prisoner was subjected to systematic torture.
Systematic therefore is the way of doing something in a careful, well organized or resolute way. In this way, you follow laid down procedures in your activity.

 OBSERVATION
“To watch carefully (the way something happens or someone does something) especially in order to learn more about it.” (Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1996).
It is presuppose that very often when a look is taken at a situation, our observation may be subjected to errors. There is therefore the need to take a second and third looks. Anytime an observation is carried out, what is seen differs according to
• What we know (knowledge level)
• What we think (perception)
• What we expect (conception)
Therefore, to observe scientifically requires
• Previous knowledge
• Training
• Experience
In the nutshell, observation in scientific investigation however implies much more than a mere unthinking process but base on the realization that “there is more to seeing than meet the eye balls.”

 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
Scientific research is base on taking a careful look at, as opposed to an informal observation. It deals with a critical and scientific analysis (scrutiny) of social facts and the formulation of generalization as a basis for actions and forecast.

 WHAT RESEARCH IS NOT?
Knowledge, facts or information derived from a research which is not subjected to rigorous verification and fortification does not qualify the description of research.
Also, research is not merely an accumulation of knowledge, informal observation nor communication of knowledge.
Research is therefore “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis” (Clifford Woody).


Quantitative research is the measurement of quality and amount. It is therefore applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in quantity. It is concerned with the determination of the relative amount of the unknown constituents or variables. Example age statistics, voting statistics, number of pregnancy cases and the like
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena relating to or involving quality. It involves the determination of unknown constituents of a substance. For example: investigating the reasons for human behaviour.